Dyas i sasniedeetad i s #i%s \ ‘ ‘ i hy Leer 8ST Yy TNE eon oeMeRy VERE CC YORE ED) fa ‘ "4% : Sok US op rebear yy {PSD yar iMsor sey PALE SNA * og , i dassitenmte tga eceriie co . ~ 4 ‘ ti ths) a) SUT PERU PERE PATER ER PORP PIRES IDES A ERS Pea % 1 yt rheetth teaaietts yyipeitst rPPER RO TERS SLIME Rad) t eae | forebarches (beet ERNISSRSTRSSIRESOOIASSOREE) SR RLAa \ D re ta Peboyetaeereges dds it AT EIUURITIRR SERA PREREOUD SRREDS TRS TPR RUD Caen ye A Pas 4 pri pyat tes VT IRPELOBP PIONS ake ALUMNA EASELS Listetesertuy sypentte ety sae VaR EDD sat tan RS GAR ERS Ae ts thapr spare fauynit servi dese \99 tie Stites Pebetya feebephbe vey ea sne ad sisianfarven iter. evi C{ VE thers sd bete vita robeetncd ye ti taee voetaeyae ityagtt ary rte HUT yee cea segseters sya regis teeltt rayRy re ean ¢ yay eee res ayectt) SEVER beer rey porte avast) RUE RU 4 Seats oy ae rete hy EDU ER ES MAR aE RIES ESS) RSIEERR RISES AR } Pees Cees yey eysgane tage tt Htyteeyes SPURRED SERS SAEED Pay s¥¥ ye cee ae yy) ah) q ' ey eee ees yy NPE ee 7 : SRARR ORES LER j } ' > . 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' stbbeei ebay PER RT EE vba cdast : | envy ies vba vie CA ; } WAV $ habe iaias a } nm caved easel PiTae Yin) PPAR ey a sastte eh) Pa ive nd, Wa Rit seppehseea tena , ae a “a ities tban ny ; : i} tigtt EU TIPR EERIE : . ; Wyaeeiaeass rine baad +t eee ctdnkecan yy sat us Ve eeewer eevee AS he titan isa ta SMa : Est) FIRERTIER REED AVORSIERITEOROER SSS TSR CLER Perey Gl veberays ae Hl ib Se TU SATHULACAL CIN ELT : vivividenys a aati te a ta ] > Lott, asseda ; ; oy Kays a uy ORES NSIS febarsearrne Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson Tot Gee ENP fatty J) fel AT" THE Pee ON AL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE VOLUME VI JANUARY, 1894, To May, 1895 W J McGer, Chairman C. Harr Merriam E: Publication Committee N ) \ INCORPORATED A.D.1888. ° WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. 1895 eee AG oersteny Nov 5 1981 LIBRARIES_. OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 1894 AND to May 31, 1899 GARDINER G. HUBBARD, President T. C. MENDENHALL* GEORGE W. MELVILLE A. W. GREELY C. HART MERRIAM W. B. POWELL HENRY GANNETT J i} "a Vice- Presidents CHARLES J. BELL, Treaswrer CYRUS C. BABB,t} Recording Secretary ELIZA R. SCIDMORE, Corresponding Secretary MARCUS BAKER H. F. BLOUNT G. K. GILBERT | EVERETT HAYDEN [ apinacers JOHN HYDE | gers W J McGEE F. H. NEWELL EDWIN WILLITS J * Resigned December 14, 1894; vacancy filled by the election January 31, 1895, of Charles W. Dabney, Jr. + Resigned January 31, 1895; vacancy filled by the election of Everett Hayden. PRINTERS JUDD & DETWEILER WASHINGTON (ii) CONTENTS Page Geographic Progress of Civilization: Annual Address by the Presi- Potaey Gr ASO UN an ore HELUBBARD 2-0. 5.5.0 See decie ded sid e's yf blah edhe 1 Shawangunk Mountain; by N. H. Darron..................000 23 Weather Making, Ancient and Modern; by Marx W. Harrrnaron. Bi) Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians; by CHarLes WIL- ARDEA vES andy ViARTUS vey @ANIPBENE..)s)-15 ns)s oslesclle mens oe «5 63 ihe Battle of the Forest; by B) EH. Frernow.......2.6..0..5...0. 06. 127 Surveys and Maps of the District of Columbia; by Marcus Bakrer.. 149 The First Landfall of Columbus; by Jacques W. Repway........ 179 ene esresea Ly Vane N ier SOMES WRG NES hoster rated nile nfe-efviclelsialslesolats dno. diate dikitere- aol 193 Geography of the Air: Annual Address by Vice-President A. W. “SEP LMIBIULS os BEA cre ev) AOI CE CREE OTC ERC SS EL cer 200 Sir Francis Drake’s Anchorage; by Epwarp L. Berrnoup........ 208 Note on the Height of Mount Saint Elias; by Israrn C. Russety.. 215 Noise by C.C, base: The Antarctic Continent.)...¢.. 202.) .06. 2 217 Magnetic Observations in Iceland, Jan Mayen, SHC Spiizwercem MNleI2. te. el. eee 223 A New Light on the Discovery of America... 224 Monographs of the National Geographic So- CEG PAs ice ner ts ee oes foice = 0 DRS R es ace 225 Laws of Temperature Control of the Geographic Distribution of Ter- restrial Animals and Plants: Annual Address by Vice-President Pea Let e Ve PA IN AAHOEL Ie DAINERS ty PVs ata siya ch he Gees sial ain Sechy as alae gs Sel sha eave ore 229 Oregon: its History, Geography, and Resources; by Joun H. Ets RE EMERD NOM rue States NS TN Sle ait Nee. bf foes 0 ord vc love ene laine ed 239 ema OM NOMITTM OVID fii cieidcte oi ate ieiata Nh 'oeelataisia eters Cais cee oo Wace TUES BFC unde ibaa) aincet: Wel) ae a Sa tee i [Staats aN SET 9 CN Gina en, oot ee a iii POOR aes steeds KOEI bates tty AGEN Atal Sims isha, ) Zz Volume I, 1889: 4 numbers, 337 pages, 16 plates, and 26 firures LS aey Cea ema erietena ee UTS Ns lan eg $1 40 | $2 00 Nor app. l-98 ai MOplates atc cise aete meee tele eres 35 50) a7 Announcement. "Introductory Address by the President, Gardiner G. Hubbard. Geographic Meth- odsin Geologic Investigation : by W. M. Davis. The ' Classification of Geographic Forms by Genesis; by W J McGee. The Great Storm of March 11-14, 1888: Summary of Remarks by A. W. Greely. The Great Storm off the Atlantic Coast of the United States, March 11-14, 1888; by Everett Hayden. The Sur- vey of the Coast ; by Herbert G. Ogden. The Sur- vey and Map of Massachusetts ; by ‘Henry Gannett. Proceedings. Certificate of Incor poration. By-laws. Officers, 1888. Members. (vi) Publications. Vil TABLE OF CONTENTS. Prices. To mem- bers and agents. To the public. | Number of copies on hand for sale. “Sa S90) As Sai Neen 9) ar Africa, its Past and Future; Annual Address by the President, Gardiner G. Hubbard. Report— Geography of the Land; by Vice-President Herbert G. Ogden. Report—Geography of the Sea; by Vice-President George L Dyer. Report—Geogra- phy of the Air; by Vice-President A. W. Greely. Report—Geography of Life; by Vice-President C. Hart Merriam. Annual Report of the Treasurer, Auditing Committee, and Secretaries. Certificate of Incorporation. Officers, 1889. By-laws. Members. No. 3: pp. 183-276, 2 plates and 26 figures........... The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania; by William Morris Davis. Topographic Models; by Cosmos Mindeleff. Abstract of Minutes. Inter- national Literary Contest. INC 31S 0) CMY Gea Soa 0) 2 2's Irrigation in California; by William Hammond Hall. Round about Asheville; by Bailey Willis. A Trip to Panama and Darien; by Richard U. Goode. Across Nicaragua with Transit and Ma- chéte; by R. E. Peary. ri) $0 50 * 116 Volume II, 1890: 5 numbers, 347 pages, 9 plates, IN@, Tbs joy0y EUS et beeen cep eae ace ae era ee On the Telegraphic Determinations of Longitudes by the Bureau of Navigation; by J. A. Norris. Re- port—Geography of the Land; by Vice-President Herbert G. Ogden. Report—Geography of the Air; by Vice-President A. W. Greely. Reports of Treas- urer, Auditing Committee, and Recording Secretary. Abstract of Minutes. Officers, 1890. Members. The Rivers of Northern New Jersey, with Notes on the Classification of Rivers in General; by Wil- liam Morris Davis. A Critical Review of Bering’s First Expedition, 1725-’30, together with a Transla- tion of his Original Report; by Wm. H. Dall. No. 3: pp. 171-230, 6 plates and 4 figures........... The Arctic Cruise of the U. 8S. S. Thetis in the Summer and Autumn of 1889; by Charles H. Stock- ton. The Law of Storms Considered with Special Reference to the North Atlantic; by Everett Hay- den. The Irrigation Problem in Montana; by H. M. Wilson. $1 40 35 (Su) or 30 50 vill TABLE OF CONTENTS. National Geographic Magazine. No. 4: pp. 231-286, 2 plates Korea and the Koreans; by J. B. Bernadou. ‘The Ordnance Survey of Great Britain; by Josiah Pierce, Jr. Geographic Nomenclature; by Herbert G. Ovden, Gustave Herrie, Marcus Baker, and A. H. Thompson. No. 5: pp. 287-839, i-vili Officers, 1890. Contents and Illustrations, vol- umes land II. Announcement. Proceedings. Third Annual Report of the Secretaries. Report of the Treasurer and Auditing Committee. Summary of Reports on the Mount Saint Elias Expedition. By- laws. Standing Rules of the Board of Managers. Rules relating to Publication. Officers, 1891. Mem- bers, March 25, 1891. Index to Volumes I and II. Volume III, 1891: 5 piper 296 pages, 21 plates, and 8 fiour (CAST eerie neers cen MnP aE CN Sey 4 te No. 1: pp. 1-30, plate 1, March 28, 1891 South America; Annual Address by the Presi- dent, Gardiner G. Hubbard. No. 2: pp. 81-40, April 30, 1891 . Geography of the Land; Annual Report by Vice- President Herbert G. Ogden. No: 3: pp. 41-525 May 1, 1891.22... .2.2...- Thee ae Geography of the Air; Annual Report by Vice- President A. W. Greely. No. 4: pp. 53-204 (with 8 figures), plates 2-20, May 29, 1891 An Expedition to Mount St Elias ; sell. No. wife) ayia) el well ofiepeli= tela) s)\.a)ieluije (steele) ee) 6 eilels (ein) /s ailm ts by I. C. Rus- 5: Magazine brochure, Pp. 205-261, i-xxxv, plate 21, February 19, 1SOD ihe AS Oy eet Was The Cartography and Observations of Bering’s First Voyage; by A. W. Greely. Height and Posi- tion of Mount Saint Elias; by I. G. Russell. The Heart of Africa; by E. C. Hore. Report of Com- mittee on Exploration in Alaska. Notes. Index. Officers, 1891. Contents. Illustrations. Publica- tions. Proceedings. Officers, 1892. Members, 1892. Arne Prices. Zs of ae Ors omem-| pp, | bers and To ae 3s agents. Coe ES =a) C4 50 35 | $0 50 | 12 18 25 3 $1 60 | $38 00 | 169 15 25>) 193 10 25 | 176 10 25 | 169 85 | 1 50} 181 40 75 | 197 a ’ Publications. 1% Prices. | zs TABLE OF CONTENTS. os ong pe SACL Wcho thes |e a persand) pub, | 22 | Z ; rn Volume IV, 1892: 7 numbers, 237 pages, 20 plates, BAe ISTIC awrehs ye taatest/s sto kioieeSieis oy sere ef ele o vie ke $1 75 | $3 00 See pp. 1-18, March 26; 1892.00.00 6... ce de es 10 | Daye ee The Evolution of Commerce; Annual Address by | the President, Gardiner G. Hubbard. | No. 2: pp. 19-84 (with 5 figures), plates 1-16, March | cecly TSUBASA Rrra SEHR a ee ee ee 79 WO 9 Studies of Muir Glacier, Alaska; by Harry Field- | ing Reid. | | mes: pp. So-100, March 18, 1892..2. 5.52.2 6....5.. | 10 Daan Geography of the Air; Annual Report. by Vice- President A. W. Greely. | | | No. 4: pp. 101-116, plate 17, March 31, 1892........ le eeaates Nd Was The Mother Maps of the United States; by Henry | Gannett. | No. 5: pp. 117-162, plates 18-20, May 15, 1892...... 30 BO)|| An Expedition through the Yukon District ; by | C. Willard Hayes. | No. 6: Magazine brochure, pp. 163-208, February | | 8, Pema i ro ei oe | 20 SOI fe vs The North American Deserts; by Johannes | Walther. The Alaskan Boundary Survey; by T. | | C. Mendenhall, J. E. McGrath, and J. Henry Turner. Collinson’s Arctic Journey; by A. W. | Greely. Notes. No. 7: Administrative brochure, pp. 209-2138, 1-xxiv, Hema 2 OT SOR Meera to Phe et re cel Bina! als 15 PB | 9 Officers, 1892. Contents. Illustrations. Publi- eations. Fourth Annual Report of the Secretaries and Treasurer. Report of the Auditing Committee. Proceedings. Fifth Annual Report of the Secreta- ries and Treasurer. Report of the Auditing Com- mittee. Index. Volume V, 1893: 6 numbers, 331 pages, 21 plates, and 13) IBKEAETN ISIS eg esl eas Cae TEE Mees eee ene ol ae ree $1 95 | $3 00 | 24 Se 1: pp. 1-20 (with 2 figures), plates 1-5, April MLS MMMM eee eAlerts na tieretel tadia\ diay tetayete- © els, s = \eiey seal P\s 39 50 24 ee verens of America; Annual Address by the President, Gardiner G. Hubbard. No. 2: pp. 21-44, plates 6-19, March 20, 1898....... 30 SONELe The Movements of our Population ; by Henry Gannett. ie National Geographic Magazine. TABLE OF CONTENTS. No. 3: pp. 45-58, plate 20, April 29, 1893........... Rainfall Types of the United States; Annual Re- port by Vice-President A. W. Greely. No. 4: Magazine brochure, pp. 59-96 (with 3 fig- TURES) FORTE! Ake Iimlhy, WO SRS Ws oasis so ohanec ob de The Natural Bridge of Virginia; by C. D. Walcott. The Geographical Position and Height of Mount Saint Elias; by T. C. Mendenhall. The Improve- ment of Geographical Teaching; by W. M. Davis. An Undiscovered Island off the Northern Coast of Alaska; by Marcus Baker, E. P. Herendeen, and A. W. Greely. The Geologist at Blue Mountain, . Maryland; by C. D. Walcott. The Great Populous " Centers of the World; by A. W. Greely. Our Youngest Volcano; by J. 8. Diller. No. 5: pp. 97—256, January 31, 1894. .0..5.......-. Proceedings of the International Geographic Con- ference in Chicago, July 27-28, 1893: Introduction. Minutes of the Conference. Memoirsand Addresses. The Relations of Airand Water to Temperature and Life; by Gardiner G. Hubbard. The Relations of Geography to History ; by Francis W. Parker. Nor- way and the Vikings; by Magnus Andersen. (reo- graphic Instruction in the Public Schools; by W. B. Powell. The Relations of Geology to Physiography in our Educational System; by T. C. Chamberlin. The Relations of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current; by William Libbey, Jr. The Arid Regions of the United States; by F. H. Newell. Recent Ex- plorations in Alaska ; by Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore. The Carayels of Columbus; by Victor Maria Concas. In the Wake of Columbus; by Frederick A. Ober. Recent Disclosures concerning pre-Columbian Voy- ages to Americain the Archives of the Vatican; by William Eleroy Curtis. Early Voyages along the Northwestern Coast of America; By George David- son. No. 6: Administrative brochure, pp. 257-263, i-lxviii, Wiese), (ul SO Am aeaigare cntetiaerec mick cision ie oer a Laee tee Officers, 1893. Contents. Illustrations. Publi- cations. Proceedings. Sixth Annual Report of the Secretaries and Treasurer. Report of the Auditing Committee. By-laws. Officers, 1894. Honorary Members. Members, 1894. Index. } | Prices. a8 a, Ot eS} a) 1p sae omem-| ip n 8 bersand Bablic Ss agents. Site =9 a * $0 15 25 | 37 25 50 | 58 50 7d | 112 40 50 | 185 Publications. a = TABLE OF CONTENTS. Prices. To mem- bers and agents. To the public, ! on hand for sale. Number of copies Volume VI, 1894 and to May 31, 1895: 9 numbers, 291 pages, 2 plates; and 11 fieures. 2... 0.26 on Nomen pp. I-22, Kebruary 1/7, 1594... kj. ce. Geographic ee of Civilization; Annual Ad- dress by the President, Gardiner G. Hubbard. No. 2: pp. 23-84 (with 3 figures), plates 1-3, March EDS y ety'6 (Rp ARIAS IS 2a ON apa Shawangunk Mountain; by N. H. Darton. meee. pp. so-02, April 25, 1894... . cee eee ee Weather Making, Ancient and Modern; by Mark W. Harrington. No. 4: pp. 63-126 (with 3 figures), plates 4-6, May 2 1 SNEED S55 6 WO eS c eREBSci Geomorphology of the Southern “Appalachians ; by C. Willard Hayes and Marius R. Campbell. No. 5: pp. 127-148 (with 1 figure), plates 7 and 8, 2 iB) DED SIG at SR Spe er ae a a en The Battle of the Forest ; by B. E. Fernow. No. 6: pp. 149-178 (with 1 figure), plate 9, Novem- Liar IL, TUSQEDS Sag oe Gee Ginecol Surveys and Maps of the District of Columbia; by Marcus Baker. ia} No. 7: Magazine brochure, pp. 179-288 (with 3 fig- ures), plates 10-14, December DOW AS Ibis Miss svete 4 The First Landfall of Columbus ; by J. W. Red- way. Japan; by D. W. Stevens. Geography of the Air; Annual Address by Vice-President A. W. Greely. Sir Francis Drake’s Anchorage; by E. L. Berthoud. Note on the Height of Mount Saint Elias ; by I. C. Russell. Geographic Notes; by Cyrus C. Babb. Laws of Temperature Control of the Geo- eraphic Distribution of Terrestrial Animals and Plants; Annual Address by Vice-President C. Hart Merriam. moe: pp: 209-284, April 20; 1895.............2. 665 Oregon : its History, Geogr aphy, and Resources ; by John H. Mitchell: No. 9: Administrative brochure, pp. Ixxxiii, plate PSMA val USO eieie share ede sca Blcle ei) a ci'eieluiatiole « Officers, 1894. Contents. Illustrations. Publi- cations, Proceedings. Seventh Annual Report of the Recording Secretary and Treasurer. Report of the Auditing Committee. By-laws. Officers, Sea- son of 1895-96. Members. Index. $2 10 40 15 30 oo ot 15 50 500 * Edition exhausted. A limited number of copies will b be Srenased by the Society upon notification of copies for sale. xii National Geographic Magazine. Orders for volumes or single numbers may be sent to booksellers or direct to the Secretary of the Society, 1515 H street N. W., Washington, D. C. IRREGULAR PUBLICATIONS In the interest of exact bibliography, the Society takes cognizance of all publications issued either wholly or partly under its auspices. Each author of amemoir published in Top Natronat GnoGrapnic MAGAZINE receives 25 copies, and is authorized to order any number of additional copies at a slight advance on the cost of press-work and paper. Contrib- utors to the magazine are authorized to order any number of copies of their contributions at a slight advance on cost of presswork and paper, provided these separates bear the original pagination and a printed reference to the serial and volume from which they are extracted ; such separates are, of course, bibliographically distinct. The Magazine is not copyrighted, and articles may be reprinted freely; a record of such reprints, so far as known, is kept. ; PROCEEDINGS OF THE : NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY JANUARY, 1894, ro May, 1895 Abstract of Minutes January 12, 1894. Sth meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8 pm. Vice-President Men- denhall in the chair. Attendance, 125. Report of Auditing Committee, appointed the 5th instant, read and approved. The general topic, “Surveys and Explorations in Southeastern Alaska for the Alaska Boundary Commission,” was discussed by Dr T. C. Mendenhall, Mr J. E. McGrath, Mr H. G. Ogden, Mr W. C. Hodgkins, Mr P. A. Welker, and Mr H. P. Ritter. The subject was illustrated by maps and lantern slides. January 19, 1894. Special meeting. National Rifles’ Hall,8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 700. : Rev E. C. Smith delivered an illustrated lecture on The Ascent of Mount Rainier. January 8, 11, 15, 18, 22, and 25, 1894. Special course of afternoon lectures. Large Hall of Columbian University, 4.15 p m. Special course by Mr G. K. Gilbert on The Shaping of the Earth’s Surface, under the divisions (1) Uplift and Erosion ; (2 and 3) Water Work; (4) Interaction; (5) Ice Work; (6) Wind Work. (xiii) X1V National Geographic Magazine. January 26, 1894. 90th meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 75. The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr G. K. Gilbert for his able and instructive course of afternoon lectures. The general topic, Alaskan Boundary Surveys, was discussed in detail by Mr J. A. Flemer, Mr E. F. Dickins, Mr O. H. Titt- mann, Mr J. F. Pratt, and Lieutenant A. P. Niblack, U.S. N., the last three of whom used lantern-slide illustrations. February 2, 1894. 91st meeting. Builders’ Exchange Hall, 8 pm. Attendance, 300. Annual address by the President, Hon Gardiner G. Hubbard, on The Geographic Progress of Civilization, illustrated by lan- tern slides. February 9, 1894. 92d meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. ; Hon Edwin Willits introduced the speaker, Dr C. Hart Mer- riam, who read a paper on Geographic Discoveries Made by the Biological Expeditions of the United States Department of Agriculture. February 16, 1894. Special meeting. Builders’ Exchange Hall,8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 500. Hon-George C. Perkins, United States Senate, delivered an illus- trated lecture on Pacific and Arctic Ocean Whaling Industry. February 23, 1894. 93d meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 50. Professor Mark W. Harrington read a paper on Weather Mak- ing, Ancient and Modern. : March 2, 1894. Special meeting. Builders’ Exchange Hall,8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 300. Major J. W. Powell delivered an address upon The Water Supply of the United States. Abstract of Minutes. . XV March 9, 1894. 94th meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8 pm. Vice-President Gan- nett in the chair. Attendance, 50. Dr C. Willard Hayes delivered an address upon The Physi- ography of a Portion of the Southern Appalachians, as Ilus- trated by a Relief Map of the Chattanooga District; and Mr M. R. Campbell read a paper on Tertiary Changes in the Drain- age of Southwestern Virginia. March 16, 1894. : Special meeting. National Rifles’ Hall, 8 p m. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 700. Professor William H. Pickering delivered an illustrated lecture upon Explorations in the Andes of South America. March 23, 1894. 95th meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 125. The amendments to the by-laws proposed February 23 were laid upon the table. (These proposed amendments created five classes of members—Active Members, Fellows, Honorary Mem- bers, Honorary Fellows, and Corresponding Members.) Mr Marcus Baker delivered an address upon The Survey and Maps of the District of Columbia. March 30, 1894. Special meeting. Builders’ Exchange Hall, 8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 550. Mr Willard D. Johnson delivered an illustrated lecture upon The Problem of the Yosemite. April 4, 1894. Special meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8 pm. Mr W J McGee in the chair. Attendance, 125. Dr Carl Lumholtz delivered an illustrated address upon The Cliff-dwellers of Mexico. April 6, 1894. 96th meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club, 8pm. Mr G. K. Gilbert in the chair. Attendance, 50. Mr Henry Gannett read a paper upon Statistics of our Indus- tries. Xvi | National Geographic Magazine. April 13, 1894. Special meeting. Builders’ Exchange Hall, 8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Mr H. M. Wilson delivered an illustrated address entitled From Bombay to the Himalayas. April 19, 1894. Ith meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club,8 pm. Mr Henry Gannett in the chair. Attendance, 75. * The general topic was The Public Lands of the United States, discussed under the following heads and by the following speakers: The National Domain, by Mr F. H. Newell; The Texas Land System, by Mr R. U. Goode; The Public Lands of Idaho, by E. T. Perkins, Jr.; and The Public Domain in its So- cial Aspect, by Mr Neate P. Davis. ul he papers were discussed by Mr J. B. Thompson and Mr W. A? Croffut. April 20, 1894. Field meeting. Eighty members and guests attended an excursion to Virginia Beach and the Dismal Swamp. Mr G. K. Gilbert and Dr David T. Day took charge of the two parties, and in the evening a meeting was held at the Princess Anne Hotel, Virginia Beach. April 21, 1894. Special meeting. National Rifles’ Hall,8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 500. Mr meal Hamilton Cushing delivered an ‘llnstiertea lecture upon The Geographic Origin and Distribution of the Pueblo Indians. May 4, 1894. ISth meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club,8 pm. Mr G. K. Gilbert in the chair. Attendance, 125. Mr Henry Farquhar, in behalf of the excursion party to the Dismal Swamp, thanked the committee for the able and efficient manner in which the plans were carried out. Mr R. T. Hill delivered an illustrated lecture upon The Moun- tains of Mexico, and remarks were made by Mr H. M. Wilson and Senior Don M. Romero, the Mexican minister. Abstract of Minutes. Xvil Muy 11, 1894. Special meeting. Builders’ Exchange Hall, 8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 600. Mr Paul B, Du Chaillu delivered an illustrated lecture upon The Dwarfs and Forests of Central Africa. May 18, 1894. 9th meeting. Assembly Hall of Cosms Club, 8 pm. Dr C. Hart Merriam in the chair. Attendance, 75. Dr T. C. Mendenhall read a paper upon The Northeastern Boundary of the United States. Professor R. T. Hill spoke of The Geography of Cuba; and Professor C. V. Riley discussed The Periodic Appearance of the Cicada. May 25, 1894. Special meeting. Y¥ “0, } g Builders’ Exchange Hall, 8 pm. President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 500. Mr Alfred F. Sears delivered an illustrated lecture upon Peru. June 1, 1894. 100th meeting. Large Hall of Columbian University,8 pm. President Hub- bard in the chair. Attendance, 250. Letters of congratulation to the Society upon the occasion of its one hundredth regular meeting were read from Hon Charles P. Daly, president of the American Geographical Society, and from Mr P. 8. Moxom, president of the Appalachian Mountain Club. General A. W. Greely, U.S. A., spoke upon The Work of Foreign Geographic Societies, and remarks were made by Bishop John J. Keane, Hon J. H. Outhwaite, Dr J. C. Welling, and Mr Charles D. Walcott. (For remaining meetings, up to May 31, 1895, see accompany- ing Calendar, season of 1894-’95.) TI —Nar. Geog. Maa., vox. VI, 1894 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY CALENDAR, SEASON OF Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. Novy. Nov. Nov. 4Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. ¢Feb. Feb. 3Feb. Feb. ?Mar. 189495 ¢ 19.* Japan: its Geography, Resources, and Future, Hon D. W. Stevens Introductory Remarks by His Excellency Mr Kurino, the Japanese Minister. 26.* The Elements of Physiography......... Major J. W. Powell 2.+ The Science of Geography...General A. W. Greely, U. S. A. The First Landfall of Columbus in the Light of Early Car- GOT DIY cain iercinticeuiycl cal cas Se! a we asdepeleaelas Mr J. W. Redway 9.* Physiographic Processes................ Major J. W. Powell 16.+ The Origin and Configuration of the Upper Alpine Passes, Dr Lafayette C. Loomis 23.* From Cape Town into the Countries of the Ma-Shukulumbe, Dr Emil Holub 30.f Recent Results in Oceanography, Ensign Everett Hayden, U.S. N. The Sigsbee Deep-sea Sounding Machine, Commander C. D. Sigsbee, U. S. N. The Outfit and Cruises of the U. S. F. C. S. Allatross, Commander Z. L. Tanner, U.S. N. 7.* The Land of the Midnight Sun...... ‘Mr Paul B. Du Chaillu 14.+ The Geographic Distribution of Soils, Professor Milton Whitney The Geographic Distribution of Life....Dr C. Hart Merriam 21.* The Political Geography of Asia........ Hon John W. Foster 28. The Economic Aspects of Erosion..... Professor N. 8. Shaler Joint Meeting with American Forestry Association, in the National Museum. Introductory Remarks by Hon J. Sterling Morton, Secretary of Agriculture. 4.* Labor and Industries of the South....Hon Carroll D. Wright 11.¢ The Northern Appalachians .............. .Mr Bailey Willis 18.* The Nicaragua Canal.................. Hon John R. Procter 25. The Pikean, Julian, Plantagenian, and Itascan Sources of — GH/eUMEISSTesipp loans cele ee abe eee Elliott Coues, M. D. 1.* The Seine, the Meuse, and the Moselle, Professor William M. Davis 8.¢ Topographic Forms, Major Gilbert Thompson, Mr G. W. Littlehales 15.“ (Shakespeare’s Hingland:. }..ci..sanbeeneees Rev G. Arbuthnot 22.¢ Practical Results of the Bering Sea Arbitration, Mr J. Stanley-Brown 1.* Recent Discoveries in Assyria and Babylonia, Rey Dr Francis Brown’ (xvii) Calendar, Season of 1894-95. xX1x @Mar. 8.|| The International Boundary between Mexico and the United Pause seine ata Nh che. cies Mr A. T. Mosman, Mr Stehman Forney, Captain E. A. Mearns, U. S. A. meee ae Tne Ottoman Mimpire........:...5.20% ss cane Dr Cyrus Adler ¢Mar. 18. Washington to Pittsburg and to Niagara Falls: Aeross. the Appalachians .............. Dr David T. Day mide irip.to- Niavara Falls *,.........4. Mr G. K. Gilbert Mar. 20. Reception at the Arlington Hotel, Washington, D. C., 9 to 12 p m. +2Mar. 22.§ Pittsburgh to Yellowstone National Park: Pittsburgh to St Paul, through the Oil and Gas Regions, Professor Edward Orton St Paul to Yellowstone National Park; Wonderland of GER YGEMOWSEOIC: « 6/haiais; 80) 5 rors noare Mr Henry Gannett @Mar. 22.|| The Alaskan Boundary Survey, Mr J. E. McGrath, Mr J. F. Pratt, Mr H. P. Ritter @Mar. 25.t Yellowstone National Park to Sacramento: The Northern Rockies; Down the Columbia; Mount Raimier and Portland::......... Mr E. T. Perkins, Jr. Portland to Crater Lake; Mount Shasta and Sacramento, Mr J. 8. Diller Mar. 29.{ Sacramento to Northern Arizona: Sacramento; the Golden Gate; Yosemite; Los Angeles; SHlin) 1 BSA ON OKO ns pice ca ete G notes Mr Arthur P. Davis From San Bernardino across the Deserts to San Francisco Mopnmitainy AwizOna.«,.--. 4206s. Major J. W. Powell Mar. 29.* Oregon: its Geography, History, and Resources, Hon J. H. Mitchell April 2.¢ The Grand Canyon and Sonora, Mexico: Salt Lake City to the Grand Canyon; a Winter in the Depths of the Canyon......... Mr Charles D. Walcott Prescott, Phoenix, and Tucson, to Sonora, Mexico; Visit to the So-called Cannibals............. Mr W J McGee ¢@April 4. The Zulu-Ma-Atabele, and Modes of Travel in South Africa, Dr Emil Holub April 5.¢ Across the Rocky Mountains to Denver: Northern Arizona, the Rio Grande, and across the Moun- tainsito Denver: 260)... os Professor A. H. Thompson The Home of the Pueblo Indians, Mr Frank Hamilton Cushing April 5.¢ Some Physical Features of Lake Superior, Professor Mark W. Harrington ¢April 8.{ Denver to Washington : Denver to Pueblo, down the Arkansas River, and across Heelan SCO! StMOMIS sae lerts eee elie! Mr F. H. Newell St Louis to Washington; the Great Caves of Kentucky SETAC, LROMEDL Ate o's taleystnh areldia oe 35s Major Jed. Hotchkiss ex National Geographic Magazine. * April 12.|| The Physical Geography, Geology, Agriculture, Religions, and Missionary Literary Institutions of the Turkish Empire, Rev Henry H. Jessup, D. D. 2April 19.¢ The Geography and Geology of Costa Rica and Panama, Mr Robert T. Hill ZApril 26.* The Antiquities and Aborigines of Peru, Mr Frank Hamilton Cushing 2April 29.t Siberia: its Geography and Resources. ..Mr George Kennan May — 3.* Fredericksburg and Vicinity; a Symposium Preparatory to the Field Day: Geography and Geology (15 minutes)..Mr N. H. Darton Surveying, Mapping, and Bridging (15 minutes), Major Gilbert Thompson The Battles: As seen from the Northern Side (20 minutes), General John Gibbon, U.S. A. As seen from the Southern Side (20 minutes), Major Jed. Hotchkiss, C. 8. A. May 4. Excursion and Field Meeting, Fredericksburg, Virginia, 9am to 6 pm. @May 10.* President’s Annual Address: Russia. (Joint Meeting of the Scientific Societies.)............ Hon Gardiner G. Hubbard May 17.¢ The United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries and its Relations with the Navy..Commander Z. L. Tanner, U.S. N. @May 24.|| The Geography and Geology of Costa Rica and Panama. (Re- peatedsby-Tequest: in sc setae eee ees Mr Robert T. Hill May 31.t Annual Meeting for Reports, Action on Amendments to By- laws, and Election of Officers. * National Rifles’ Hall, 8 to 9.15 p m. +Cosmos Club Hall, 8 to 10 p m. t National Rifles’ Hall, 4.15 to 5.30 p m. 2 Lecture illustrated by lantern slides. || Columbian University, 8.15 to 9 30 p m. q Columbian University, 4.15 to 5.30 pm. * as Fr SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY (Presented to the Society May 31, 1895) OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, 1515 H Street N. W., Wasuineaton, D. C., May 31, 1895. The season ending today has been one of the most successful in the annals of the Society, not only as regards increase of mem- bership, but by reason of the great interest shown in the meetings, the large attendance of members and guests, and the character and number of the papers read. The present membership is 1,178,.consisting of 895 active, 274 corresponding, and 11 honorary members. Of this total number 423 have been elected since January 1, 1894, and 3865 since June 1, 1894, numbers largely in excess of those elected during a similar period at any former time in our history. To illustrate graphically the number of members elected each month since the Society was organized (in January, 1888), the length of time each member has remained in the Society, and the present membership, the accompanying membership dia- gram has been prepared. 4 Yo aoc 2 ag g25§ 222% > ge EgaE goa. Sed S i fee eats 7 bE EE) OTe : Sm He Bee Bee | Se oO Cy Get tops g2 3 28 Fl iszi Pia? os oo ae yet fee mene Go Baebes cage fare Se Gee Ebel ate | SEP ESiL | che (a) fat, SARB ABS fe] Giey Aras < | #ak8eys SPE 508 ac | gece ees gee Ble EO) S§Sca5s_e52y EPs Pu) peSSPeeghses Sea co GOH&Sse Cee gy Se8 uy B58esq 5 4 ge gee a Sova esa 2 § 5 | sweesssorae ts a eee oS S28eshenezss 235 Wu > ERMong 28 Seaq aa8 = © BG g@ 2 25 bo Sofeemeh || f=) c) = gpg huge bye a ge s ay ae ore" Bea 2 b4 ¥ 2) a co) @ in’ aaggee 220288 6e¢ u es} = aS 2588 age o 8 8 8 3 | oO 2 | ol. ree Ny ] i Bin Corresponding Members. Ixxill BarcHecper, C. F., M. D., ; . 7 Kirkland street, Cambridge, Mass. Bayey, Dr W. S., y Colby University, Waterville, Me. Bayuts, Jerome Z., p Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. Bearpsvezr, Apmirat L. A., U.S. Navy, a Commanding U.S. Naval Force, Pacifie Station. Bernavov, Licutenant J. B., U.S. Navy, i Torpedo Station, Newport, R. 1. ERTHOUD, Epwarp L. ; eet : P. O. box 45, Golden, Colo. Brxsy, Masor W. H., U.S, Army, Di 4 Post Office building, Philadelphia, Pa. 166 Adams street, Chicago, III. BricHam, Proressor A. P., Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. BROADHEAD, Proressor G. C., Columbia, Mo. Brown, Wu Q., Riddles, O : iddles, Ore. Butxktey, Frep G., - Aspen, Colo. ‘Bore, J. H. Ten Eyck, Cazenovia, N. Y. ANTWELL, LizuTENANT J. C., U. S. Revenue Marine, 1818 Sacramento street, San Francisco, Cal. CarterTon, P. J., - _ ‘ ‘ Rockport,\Me. é CARROLL, CapTain JAMES, é ; Juneau, Alaska. Cary, Austin, a Agricultural Department. CHAMBERLIN, Proressor T. C., { University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Cuenery, Lisurenant Commanper L., U.S. Navy, ; University Club, New York, N. Y. “Cuester, Commanper C. M., U.S. Navy, Eyes y Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. Cuapp, Grorce H., ? 116 Water street, Pittsburg, Pa. 'Cuarx, Dr W. B., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Craypotr, Proressor E. W., Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio. CLENDENIN, Proressor W. W., Louisiana State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La. _ VI—Nar. Grog. Mac., vor. VI, 1894. Ixxiv National Geographic Magazine. Coiiiz, Proressor G. L., Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Comstock, Proressor T. B., University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. Concer, CHarues T., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Contry, Miss M. J., " Ventura, Cal. Cook, FrepErick A., M. D., 15 Hart street, Brooklyn, N. Y. Coox, FRED W., ‘ 415 Power building, Helena, Mont. Cootzy, Miss Grace E., Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Craain, Proressor F. W., * Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. Crimuins, Martin L., University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. Crouter, A. L. EH. ; i “ Mount Airy,” Philadelphia, Pa. CULBERTSON, Emma B., M. D., 33 Newbury street, Boston, Mass CuLveER, Proressor G. E., Stevens Point, Wis. CUNNINGHAM, JouHN M., Cosmos Club, San Francisco, Cal. Curtis, G. CARROLL, 68 Thayer Hall, Cambridge, Mass. Daty, REGINALD A., 60 Perkins Hall, Cambridge, Mass. Davipson, PRoFEsSOR GEORGE, ‘ San Francisco, Cal. Davis, ARTHUR P., U. 8. Geological Survey, P. O. box 788, Denver, Colo. Davis, W. T., American Bank building, Kansas City. Mo. Davis, WALTER W., 515 Main street, Kansas City, Mo. Denmine, Miss C. E., f State Normal School, Providence, R. I. Denny, ARTHUR A., 1328 Front street, Seattle, Wash. Dopaz, R. E., Teachers’ College, 120th street west, New York, N. Y. Do.urny, Cares §., M. D., ‘ - 8707 Woodland avenue, Philadelphia, Pa. Dorr, R. E. Apruorp, Mail and Express, 203 Broadway, New York, N. Y. 7 Corresponding Members. Ixxv Drewey, W.S., Department of Land and Works, Victoria, British Columbia. Dryer, CHARLES R., M. D., Fort Wayne, Ind. Dums.e, Proressor E, T., State Geological Survey, Austin, Tex. EastMAN, CHARLES R., 297 Laurel avenue, Saint Paul, Minn. Epson, HonoraBLE OBED, Sinclairville, N. Y. Emerson, Dr B. K., Amherst, Mass. Evans, SAMUEL G., 211 Main street, Evansville, Ind. EYERMAN, JOHN, ¥ ‘*Oakhurst,”’ Easton, Pa. Farrcuitp, Proressor H. Le Roy, University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. FarrcuiLp, Joun F., Bank building, Mount Vernon, N. Y. Frenneman, N. M., State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. Forses, W. H., 233 Chestnut avenue, Jamaica Plain, Mass. Frank, Grorce W., JUNIOR, Kearney, Neb. Gane, H. &., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. GANonG, Proressor W. F., 119 Oxford street, Cambridge, Mass. GARDNER, JOHN L., 2d, 22 Congress street, Boston, Mass. GARRETT, H. G., Orlando, FI ; la , Fla. Goong, J. Pau. 2 2 Moorhead, Minn. Gorman, M. W., 75 North Fourteenth street, Portland, Ore. Goucuer, Dr J. F., Woman’s College, Baltimore, Md. Grant, Utysses S Tir . . . . . State Geological Survey, Minneapolis, Minn. GREENE, Roger S., Junror, : Seattle, Wash. Greeory, E. J., Fort Collins, Colo. Grimstey, G. P., 87 Hubbard avenue, Columbus, Ohio. Ixxvi National Geographic Magazine. GRINNELL, GeorGE B., M. D., 318 Broadway, New York, N. Y. GRISWOLD, L. 8., 238 Boston street, Dorchester, Mass. GROEGER, G. G., 310 Chamber of Commerce building, Chicago, III. GULLIVER, F. P., 1686 Cambridge street, Cambridge, Mass. HaaGaporn, Lirutenant ©. B., U. S. Army, Springfield, Mass. Harris, Dr T. W., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Harrison, THomas F., : 221 West Forty-fifth street, New York, N. Y. Harvey, F. H., Galt, Sacramento county, Cal. Haske Lt, E. E., U.S. Engineer’s office, Sault de Sainte Marie, Mich. Hastines, JouHN B., BAieecnaan oise, Idaho. Haw tey, LizuteNantT CommManper J. M., U.S. Navy, U. 8.8. Detroit. Haypen, JoHN ELLerTON VASSALL, Milton, Mass. Hayes, Proressor Eien, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Haynes, F. Jay, 392 Jackson street, Saint Paul, Minn. Hensuaw, H. W., Chico, Cal. Hirt, Harry C., & P. O. box 1040, Salt Lake City, Utah. Hits, Victor G., ; P. O. box D, Cripple Creek, Colo. Hircucock, Prorerssor C. H., Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. Hosss, Dr W. H., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Hopein, Cyrus W., Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. Ho.wpen, Luruer L., : : ‘ 9 Saint John street, Jamaica Plain, Mass. Houmes, Proressor J. A., : University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Hooprr, Captain C. L., U. 8S. Revenue Marine, 320 East Sola street, Santa Barbara, Cal. Hore, Caprain E. C., Care of Thomas Pratt, Bridge street, Sydney, N.S. W. Corresponding Members. Ixxvii Howe, Epwarp G., 304 Columbia avenue, Champaign, I!1. Howe, Frank D., ‘ ; Care of Secretary National Geographic Society, 1515 H street. Howison, Caprain H. L., U.S. Navy, .. Navy Yard, Mare Island, Cal. a Hoxir, Caprain R. L., U. S. Army, P. O. box 1240, Pittsburg, Pa. 904 “ The Rookery,” Chicago, Ill. Hupericu, CHarues H., P. O. box 640, San Antonio, Tex. Hurp, Artuur W., M. D., : Buffalo State Hospital, Buffalo, N. Y. Ippincs, Proressor J. P., 3 University of Chicago, Chicago, III. VAN INGEN, GILBERT, % “ Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. [ACOBS, JOSEPH, ; Los Angeles, Cal. aGcceErR, T. A., JuNroR, 4 Care of Drexel Harjes et Cie, Paris, France. fEweTT, W. P., 4 if 180 East Third street, Saint Paul, Minn. Jounson, Mrs Mary D., b Sitka, Alaska. * ELLEY, W..D., ‘ 619 Havemeyer building, New York, N. Y. Kemp, Proressor J. F., ; . Columbia College, New York, N. Y. EMP, JAMEs &., : 395 Union street, Brooklyn, N. Y. Y = HONORARLE GARDINER G. HUBBARD @ INCORPORATED A.D.(a88. WASHINGTON PuBLISHED BY THE Na?troNaL GEOGRAPHIC SociETy Price 25 cents. VoL. VI, PP. 1-22 FEBRUARY 14, 1894 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT . HONORABLE GARDINER G. HUBBARD (Presented before the Society February 2, 1894) If parallels of latitude were drawn around the earth about fifteen degrees north and fifteen degrees south of Washington, the land within these parallels would include all the countries of the world that have been highly civilized and distinguished for art and science. No great people, except the Scandinavians and Scotch, who, from their climate, belong to the same region, ever existed outside these limits; no great men have ever lived, no great poems have ever been written, no literary or scientific work ever produced, in other parts of the globe. In the far north are found savages and barbarians, the Mongols, Lapps, Eskimos, Finns and other equally barbarous tribes; in the south the Polynesians in Oceanica, the Hottentots and Bushmen in south- ern Africa, the Patagonians and Terra del Fuegans in South America. The nearer man lives to the polar regions the greater his inferiority in intellect, the greater his barbarism. Now, changing our starting point, if two other parallels are drawn, one fifteen degrees north and another fifteen degrees south of the equator, the country within these parallels would contain the richest and most abundantly watered lands, produc- 1—Nart. Grog, Maa., von. VI, 1894. (1) 2 G4. G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. ing the greatest varieties of vegetal and animal life, the largest variety of the most beautiful birds and flowers, the most ferocious animals; both animal and vegetal life carried to the highest per- fection, save only in the case of man, for whose development a different zone has been required. When we look at the geographic distribution of man and observe that from the Arctic seas to the Antarctic ocean the world is inhabited by men of differing race, color, character and civ- ilization, we naturally ask, Are the Mongolian, the Polynesian, - the Negro, the Indian, and the Caucasian descended from one or from: many progenitors? We believe that there are facts sufficient to show that man may have originated in one place and migrated thence over the world. We have evidence of the the life of man during the Ice age in caves among the foot- hills of the mountains of France, where the bones of men and the remains of their food, nuts_and roots, with the bones of the cave bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, and other extinct animals have been found. As years rolled on and men multi- plied, they were compelled to wander in search of food: some to colder climates, where they dug holes in the earth in imitation of caves and covered them with the branches of trees and leaves ; - others emigrated to southeastern EHuyope and thence to western Asia, where finding neither caves nor trees, they built huts of stone and mud, and wandering still further into China they made houses of bamboo; still others migrated to the torrid zone and lived in the woods, the trees their only shelter. Wherever men wandered they were governed in the construction of their habitations and in their food by the climate, the materials at hand, and the vegetation. Some early men found their way to the gea-coast, where mol- lusks and fish served them for food. From the extent of the shell mounds in our country and the kitchen-middens of Scan- dinavia, these places must have been inhabited for many hun- dreds and some say thousands of years. In Europe the forests and running streams furnished game and fish, and there man lived by hunting and fishing. In eastern and central Asia the country is open, destitute of trees and running water, the land of the wild horse, goat and cow ; by slow degrees these animals were domesticated, and the nomads became: shepherds. ~The tribe remained the same, roaming from place to place in quest of game,and fish or of pasture, without any permanent abiding wrt? The Ages of human Development. 3 place or connection with the soil; even a small tribe required a Jarge tract of land, for a square mile supported only one man, while in England the population is 265 and in portions of India over 400 to the square mile. The flocks and herds increased, and gradually came the idea of personal property. After man ceased to be a nomad and became a tiller of the soil and began to sow and reap, then came the idea of property in real estate, belonging not to the individual but to the tribe. In all countries similar weapons and instruments were used in the chase and for warfare and in the construction of habita- tions. Stones, everywhere found, were early shaped into darts and lances and then into arrow-heads and axes. ‘This was the Stone age. Copper mines have been found in Egypt and near Lake Superior, abandoned long before the beginning of history ; copper from these and other mines was the first metal used be- cause found in its native state; then tin, and with the invention of bronze a further advance toward civilization. This was the Bronze age. Every new invention or discovery made the next stage more rapid; yet it was long after the Bronze age before iron was used. Even now in the different parts of the world men are passing through these various stages. In Kamchatka the natives live in caves of rocks and cover the openings with skins; they have no domestic animals, not even the dog; their weapons are bones and pointed stones. In Terra del Fuego the natives live on sea mussels, fish, rats and wild geese. In central Africa the Dwarfs possess no domestic animal but poultry, and some of the tribes live almost entirely on roots,‘berries and nuts. These people belong to the Stone age. Other tribes of Africa have passed from savagery to barbarism, the first stage of progress, and make vessels of copper and bronze. The equatorial Indians of South America subsist almost entirely on the fruit of the banana and the palm tree, and by hunting and fishing. The Mandans of Dakota lived in mud houses. I have seen similar huts among the Tatars of Asia. In Russia the agricultural land generally belongs to the commune, or mir, as the commune is called. Every year the property is allotted to the families of the mir according to their size. In the earliest ages government was unknown; with the family came the first idea of government, the head of the family having despotic power over all its members; then seyeral fam- 4 G. G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. ilies formed the clan, and as the clan grew came the tribe, the association of clans. The earliest civilizations of which we have any knowledge are those of Egypt, Babylon, and China, and though the monu- ments of those civilizations are from 5,000 to 6,000 years old, and perhaps much older, they show that centuries of civilization must have antedated their erection; for the Sphinx and the Pyramid of Cheops, the earliest monuments of Egypt, have never been surpassed. The manners and customs of the Egyp- tians and Chinese were almost. identical, though their architec- ture was of entirely different type, depending on the material convenient for use—in Egypt, stone; in China, bamboo and wood. The syllabic symbols of the Chinese are the counterparts of the hieroglyphic writings of Egypt. The civilization of other na- tions, save perhaps that of the Indians of this continent, was derived from and dependent in a greater or less degree on that of Babylon and Egypt. China. At some early period Mongolian tribes must have passed the Pamir, descended the plateau of Tibet into the rich valleys of eastern China, dispossessed the aborigines of their lands, and extirpated, absorbed or forced them into inaccessible fastnesses. The physical geography of China influenced and tended to form the character of its inhabitants. On the north are the deserts of Mongolia and Gobi, beyond these Siberia, until recently even more desolate than the Mongolian desert ; on the east the ocean ; on the south China sea and the Himalaya mountains ; on the south and west the highest and most extensive plateau in the world, Tibet, and behind, it a long chain of mountains crossed only by passes from 14,000 to 20,000 feet in altitude. These well- nigh impassable barriers cut off the Chinese from communication with the world, and for ages they remained entirely unknown to Europeans, whom they regarded as outside barbarians. The great rivers of China have afforded an unsurpassed system of inter-communication, and to this the empire owes the homo- geneous character of its population, and largely also its long- continued political unity. The Chinese very early passed from the nomadic to the agricultural state, and for a long period must haye made great progress in art and science ; but in some remote f See Se a. Se The crystallized Culture of China. 5 age this progress was stopped, and since then they have neither advanced nor retrograded. The Chinese invented gunpowder, the mariners’ compass, and the printing-press. They made silk goods and ceramics long before they were known to the western world; but they used gunpowder only for fire-works, and even with the compass they never ventured so far from the land as the Phenecians without it. They had the printing-press long before Europe, but their literature is greatly inferior to that of the Greeks and Romans, who used only the papyrus and skins or parchment for their writings. Their fields of bituminous and anthracite coal are unsurpassed in extent, but though coal -has been used for ages in their houses, it has never to any consider- able extent been used for other purposes. Their form of govern- ment, the patriarchal, which contributed to stay development, is founded on the conception of the state as an enlarged family, and of the family as the state in miniature. As the father pos- sesses absolute control over his own family, so the emperor possesses despotic power over the lives and property of all the families. The Chinese have neither freedom of mind nor liberty of body. They are an impersonal people with little conscious individuality. Their civilization, begun so early, has remained stationary for thousands of years. Arabia. From China we pass to another country no less peculiar in its physical features, but entirely dissimilar. In a territory nearly two-thirds surrounded by water we should not expect to find one of the arid tracts of the world, where rain falls only once in three or four years; ina country on a parallel of latitude only a little south of Florida, with a mean altitude of 3,000 feet, we do not expect to find the zone of maximum heat, and still less do we expect to find ice and snow for three months of the year on mountains only 7,000 to 8,000 feet in height. All of these con- trasts are found in Arabia. A range of mountains follows the coast line around the whole of Arabia, and except on Red sea and ona few small streams and oases Arabia is dry, hot and barren, the land of the shepherd. The largest cities are Mecca and Medina, near Red sea, to which annually thousands of pil- grims resort; for it is a sacred obligation on every Mohammedan to yisit Mecca before he dies, Arabia has been peopled from 6 G.G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. the earliest times, and the bedouin, the inhabitants of the larger portion of its territory, have never passed beyond the nomad state. The bedouin have always cherished the poet and have a rich literature of poetry and romance, and in every tent of Arabia may be heard the recital of the stories of the “Arabian Nights.” The Arab sheik with his tribe roams from place to place seeking pasture for his horses and herds. Thus, without contact of man with man, without schools or education, progress in trade or commerce is impossible. The Arabs as Mohammedans ruled the whole territory from Caspian sea to the Indian ocean, and from the western border of India through northern Africa to the Atlantic; they crossed the straits of Gibralter and, as Moors, conquered the greater part of Spain and southern Gaul, where their further progress was stopped by Charles Martel at Tours in the year 752. Wher- ever they came in contact with other races they accomplished much in science, especially in astronomy, but little in art, Even now, through their religion and institutions, they give the law to one-eighth part of the human race, while their language is one of the most extensively spoken in the world. To the Arabs we owe probably our first knowledge of astronomy and the Arabic numerals, brought to us from India through Arabia. Egypt. China may have been inhabited before Egypt, but it is the latter country that has influenced the civilization of the world. As Egypt has neither game nor fruits for food, nor broad plains for cattle to roam, it could not have been inhabited at an early period nor by a nomadic race. Its inhabitants must have come from the east and not from the south, from Asia and not from Nubia, for they are of the Asiatic and not the Negro type. The climate is warm but not enervating; the soil, though rich, » produces no large trees—indeed the willow seems to have been the only tree that grew spontaneously on the river banks,— while the indigenous plants were unsuitable for food. It is in- closed by deserts on the east and west, and beyond the valley by two low mountain ranges called by Arabian writers “The Wings of the Nile,” on the south by the mountains of Nubia, on the north by a broad band of marsh land and shallow lakes extending along the coast that held the people back from the The changeless People of the Nile. ‘er sea, while the want of timber suitable for ships prevented them from becoming a maritime nation. Herodotus says, “ Egypt is the gift of the Nile.” Its valley is so level that it is enriched by each inundation of the Nile throughout its entire length of 600 miles and breadth of from 12 to 15 miles, a little regular labor thus securing large returns. The houses were built of dried mud, as there are neither trees nor stone, and adobe houses an- swered in a country where rain seldom falls. The pyramids were built of stone brought from several hundred miles up the Nile. The king was the first soldier and the high-priest, the rep- resentative of the gods before the nation. The pyramids were constructed by the descendants of those who had even then long occupied the land—the ancestors of the present fellahin. Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos or shepherd kings, by Cambyses, Alexander, and others in turn; foreign rulers usurped the throne, but the people remained unchanged. If a mummy should awake from his sleep of three thousand years he would today see the same sky above him, the same river overflowing its bank, the same deserts; the same people living in similar houses, cul- tivating the ground with the same kind of plow, irrigating with the same shadoof—a people as changeless as the sky, the river and the desert. Architecture has never reached such vast proportions else- where, but art, swathed in bands like the mummies, was forced into the same cold rigidity and remained unchanged as the monuments erected by despotic sovereigns under a sky as un- changeable as themselves. To the Egyptians we owe the development of agriculture and architecture. Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, or “ The land between the rivers” (Euphrates and Tigris), was formerly called Assyria and Babylonia. As- syria occupied the upper portion, 500 miles long and from 100 to 300 miles wide, a well watered, rich country. Its capital was Nineveh. The lower part of the valley, Babylonia, was the seat of the earliest civilization. It was 400 miles long and about 100 miles wide, a rainless country watered by the overflow of the Euphrates and the Tigris from April to June, formerly irri- gated by numerous canals connecting the Tigris and Euphrates, SG. G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. East of Mesopotamia were the mountains and deserts of Scythia, early inhabited by nomad tribes without permanent or fixed habitations. As they increased they required more land for their herds, and the overflowing population was forced into the plains of Mesopotamia, where they began the cultivation of the valley. Mesopotamia was successively ruled by Babylonian, Assyrian, Chaldean, Syrian, Median, and Persian monarchs. The kings were the religious as well as the secular heads, despots of the most absolute kind, ruling over a nation of slaves. They built a vast number of great cities. As there were no stones in the lower valley the buildings were constructed of sun-dried brick, and although there was stone in Assyria, brick was generally used as in Babylon. In Nineveh and Babylon the architecture of the palaces and city walls surpassed in variety, beauty, and taste that of Egypt. Hieroglyphics were gradually superseded by cuneiform char- acters, running from left to right, in which many books and in- - struments were written. As early as the twentieth century B. C. their annals were engraved on stone, and every great city had its library of baked bricks or tablets, stamped in minute char- acters, arranged in order and numbered, so that the student had only to give the number of the tablet and receive it from the librarian. But notwithstanding their architecture, their libra- ries and luxury, the people were intellectually and morally barbarous. Mesopotamia, unlike Egypt, was not protected by deserts from incursions. The nomads of Scythia, tempted by the wealth and luxury of the inhabitants of the plains, again and again left their flocks and poured into the valley, and though often repulsed, finally overthrew the empire and destroyed the irrigating canals; the land was then covered with sand, and Mesopotamia has become a desert waste. To the inhabitants of Babylonia and Assyria we owe the de- velopment of trade and commerce by the caravan. Syria. Between Mesopotamia and Arabia lies. Syria, a small country remarkable for its physical features and its wonderful history. In the east a great desert with beautiful oases, where were Palmyra, Baalbec and Damascus; west of these oases the moun- tains of Moab and Gilead; beyond the mountains in the valley 4 a eee ee The Birthplace of Commerce and Letters. i) of the Jordan, with the lake of Gallilee at the north and the Dead sea at the south, Palestine, the land of the Jews. Beyond the Jordan lay Lebanon and Anti-lebanon; on the sea-coast the land of Tyre and Sidon. By its position, Syria was the great battle-field of Africa and Asia. Bordering on the Mediterranean, it has been the means of transmitting the civilizing influences of the east to the west, and generations later that of the west to the east. The great plateau of Syria stops suddenly at some distance from the Mediterranean and encircles on a large curve a belt of coast land, sometimes expanding into large plains cut up by rocky spurs into narrow valleys opening into the sea and in- habited by the Phenecians. Good harbors and timber from the mountains of Lebanon and the outlook on the sea invited the inhabitants to launch on the Mediterranean their vessels thereto- fore confined to the rivers of Mesopotamia. The Phenecians, like many other people in modern times, began their mercantile career by plundering the neighboring coasts and: villages. They rapidly increased in number, and soon wealthy cities sprang up on the sea-coast, each city with its adjacent territory governed by its king. The Phenecians sent out colonies, east to the Persian gulf and Red sea; west to Greece, Carthage, Sicily, Italy, and Spain. They sailed through the straits of Gibralter northward and southward into the Atlantic and became merchants and traders, exchanging their manufactures of glass and Tyrian dyes for the goods and precious stones of the east, the wheat and grain of Carthage, the gold and silver of Spain, the tin and copper of Great Britain. The country was frequently conquered by Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt without affecting its prosperity; but when Greece became a maritime power the Phenecians were driven from the _ eastern Mediterranean, and later the Romans drove them from ‘the western Mediterranean, each state thus protecting its own trade and commerce. To Phenecia we owe the development of navigation and com- merce, the alphabet and, probably, weights and measures. Persia and India. Three thousand five hundred years ago the Aryans, emigrating from the cradle lands of their race, passed through Syria into 2—Nart, Grog. Maa., you. VI, 1894, 10 G. G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. Persia and later into India, in each country driving the native races before them and occupying the most favored parts of the land. - The geographic features of Persia and India are dissimilar, affording an opportunity to notice the effect produced on the same race by differences in the physical geography of the two countries. Persia formerly included Afghanistan and Beloochis- tan, and was called the Iranian plateau. It is environed with mountains, so that one-half the drainage is inland. Mountain chains cross it in every direction; it is dry and hot in summer, cold in winter, with great salt deserts and rich fertile valleys of | limited extent; it is the land of the rose and the nightingale. The Persians are naturally brave, warlike, independent and unconquered, but under a despotic government a part of the people have lost much of their independence and have become great traders. This despotism is, however, principally confined to the cities and towns, for the larger proportion of the popula- tion are nomads, subject only to their chiefs, and remain free and independent. The area of the Iranian plateau is about two- thirds that of India; the population of the one is 138,000,000; of the other, 287,000,000. The vedas, hymns which the Aryans sang three thousand years ago on the banks of the Indus in northern India, give us our earliest knowledge of India. They show that when they were written the Aryans were a people of robust rudeness and manly freedom, in character entirely unlike the Hindus of to- day, more like the nomad Persians. The Aryans found one of the richest countries in the world, generally well watered and easily cultivated : in the north, a tem-. perate and healthful climate, the region of the Himalayas and their foot-hills ; in northern-central India, the warm, rich valleys of the Indus and Ganges. . Further southward low mountains cross the country from east to west, and from these mountains rich plains with an equatorial climate extend to southern India and Ceylon. The Aryans conquered India, driving the aborig- ines into the mountains and jungles and the Dravidians into the southern parts of India, where they retain their habits and cus- toms. Though the same race conquered and settled Persia and India, it would be difficult to find two nations now more unlike: the Persians restless, strong, brave and independent; the Hindus small in stature, weak in body, highly imaginative, with little a .—— The eastward Course of Conquest in Asia. 11 independence or even love of liberty, easily enslaved, and pas- sive under bondage. Into this country, considerably over a thousand years ago, the Mohammedans came and settled among the earlier inhabitants ; and now Brahmins, Mohammedans, Sudras, Dravidians and aborigines live together in all parts of India without anything in common—they never intermarry, their religious and domestic life and all their interests are in opposition ; this diversion of in- terests preventing them from uniting against foreign invaders or domestic tyrants. England, therefore, with an army of 220,300 (British, 71,171; native, 149,129) rules the 287,000,000 people of India. There is scarcely a country in the world containing so great a diversity of tribes and races as India, where we find every stage of civilization, from the philosophic Hindu down to the most degraded savage. The arts of India were more original and varied than those of Rome; her forms of civilization present an ever-changing variety, such as are nowhere else to be found. Greece and Rome are dead, but India is a living entity and a complete cosmos in itself. Within the life of the present generation England has in- troduced great reforms, abolished inhuman customs, diffused ed- ucation, and built railroads in many directions, tending to over- throw caste and gradually change the character of the people. Greece. From Persia we turn to Europe and to Greece, the country with which Asia had for many centuries close connection. As the geographic situation of Phenecia gave commerce to the world, so the position of Greece, a short distance west of Phe- necia, gave a further and greater advance to civilization. Greece, the smallest of the three peninsulas of Europe, is the most bountifully endowed by nature. In variety of physical features it excels the countries of Europe, as Europe excels the other continents. Into its small territory are gathered all the peculiarities of the continent to which it belongs—mountains, valleys, rivers, a lovely climate and fine scenery, seas with deep gulfs studded with islands, the largest extent of sea-coast in pro- portion to its territory of any country. Its mountain ranges opening to the sea inclose fertile valleys, which naturally led to the formation of autonomous communities, in which each de- veloped its own political, social and artistic life independently 12. G. G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. of all others. No other country possessed within such narrow limits so many different characteristics of humanity with such raried tastes, pursuits, and amusements. Fond of liberty, bold and adventurous, never acting together unless driven by the necessity of an alliance against a common foe, there were yet bonds of unity in the poems of Homer, in their religion, in their temples, and especially in their games. The gulfs of Corinth and Egina, now connected by a canal, divide Greece into parts, each antagonistic to the other: on the one side were the Dorians, represented by Sparta; on the other the Ionians, represented by Athens; the one an oligarchy, the other a democracy ; in the one tyranny of the state, in the other freedom of the family; in the one contempt for labor, in the other work honorable alike for all; war and hunting the sole occupation of the Spartans, commerce, the arts and sciences the pursuit of the Athenians. The government of Athens was at first democratic, a government of the people by families and tribes. Its life-and-death struggle with the Persians compelled the Athenians to build a navy and assume the leadership of Greece, and to change the form of government. If Greece had been defeated, her whole civilization would have been crushed by eastern despotism and neither her artistic nor her spiritual life would have been possible. Greece was the home of individ- ual freedom and democracy, of great philosophers, poets, archi- tects, sculptors, and painters. Though Greece and Athens fell, it was only to spread their influence and learning far and wide. To Greece we owe the separation of church and state—for it is the earliest nation of which we have any knowledge where the king and priest were not united in the same person,—the development of philosophy, literature and art, and the ideas of democracy and the personality of man. Rome. The geographic position of Italy, a neighbor of Greece, border- ing on Gaul and not far from Spain, dividing the Mediterranean into two distinct parts, was admirably adapted to make her capital in the middle of Italy—Rome—the center of the ancient world, its mistress. Rome had the genius of government; her rule was not that of a race, for she united a hundred different races in the state, ’ a o a ot. Lae ‘The early Mistress of the World. 13 The east and the west contributed to her greatness. The prov- inces which became tributary to her enjoyed, in healthfulness and fertility of soil, in variety of vegetal and mineral products, and in natural facilities for transportation and distribution of exchangeable commodities, advantages that have not been pos: sessed in equal degree by any territory of like extent in the Old World or the New. From Mesopotamia came cotton and silk and from India precious stones; from Arabia the Blest came spices; grain came from Egypt and Sicily, elephants, lions and tigers for her colosseum and circus from Africa, gold and silver from Spain, iron, copper and tin from- England, gladiators from Gauland Germany. Even the harvests of Eeypt and the wealth of Asia could not forever supply the demands of the Roman emperor and support in idleness and luxury the people of Rome. Some of the countries from which Rome had long drawn its sup- plies became exhausted of their fertility and so diminished in productiveness as to be no longer capable of affording sustenance even to their own inhabitants, while others refused to be still longer subject to the despotic rule of Rome. Lands which from their abundance sustained a population scarcely inferior to that of the whole Christian world of the present day became entirely unproductive or at least capable of supporting only the few tribes which wander over their deserts. While this exhaustion of the national resources was going on the Gauls and Germans, taught the art of war by their conflicts with the Romans, once and yet again crossed the Alps and carried war into the heart of Italy. The Goths, Huns and Vandals, with hordes from the far-distant deserts of Tartary and Mongolia, poured through the fastnesses of the Alps, and Rome fell. To Rome we owe the idea of universal dominion, the merging of all nations into one, and the civil law. We have now finished our review of the nations of the Old World, and have shown that all nations pass through similar stages of progress from savagery to a more or less advanced state - of barbatism, and that beyond these stages nations have rarely if ever progressed without a change in their surroundings or contact with other peoples. Certain nations like Egypt, Arabia, and China had an early development, and since then have been persistent, but have made no progress, while other highly civ- ilized nations, like the Babylonians, Assyrians, Phenicians, 14. G. G. Hubbard— Geographic Progress of Civilization. Grecians and Romans, have had their times of development, progress and decay. In these nations, excepting Greece, civil- ization was confined to the rulers and the noble families, while the people were sunk in the deepest degradation and without true civilization. . We turn now to modern nations, from Asia to Europe, Africa, and America. Scandinavia. After the fall of Rome the first revival of civilization seems to have come from the far north, “The land of the midnight sun.” A slight knowledge of the geography of Europe will show why Scandinavia, the home of the vikings, was the first to awake from the lethargy of the dark ages. -Though it lies far away in the northernmost part of Europe, yet the winds and waves from the Gulf stream bathe its shores and give it a more equable climate than that of New England. Whoever looks at the map of Norway and sees its gulfs, bays, numerous fiords, and fine harbors probably exceeding in number those of all the other countries of Europe, will see what gave her the vikings, a race of seamen, and why her population, when they found no room on their own shores, sailed for other lands and occupations. They early became pirates and freebooters, then founded colonies on the coasts of North sea, in France, on the coasts of Italy and Sicily, in England, the Orkney islands, Iceland, and Greenland. In the geographic position of their country and in their habits they somewhat resemble the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon. Italy. Though Seandinavia opened a new era for commerce and for a time was all-powerful on the ocean, yet the northmen did little for the development of a higher civilization. For progress in the arts and sciences, we must return to the shores of the Mediterranean. ‘ Italy, situated in the middle of the Mediterranean, the penin- | sula of Europe which extends furthest southward, rich in its valleys and fine harbors, the land of the vine and fig-tree, is the only country which has had a renaissance. The ships of Venice and Genoa became the carriers of Europe, exchanging The Renaissance of Rome. 15 the products of the Orient for the goods and wares of Europe ; and when Constantinople fell and the church of, the east was overthrown, Rome a second time became the capital of the world, the church was separated from the state, and the pope became the spiritual head of the world. The practical and reasoning mind of the north could not long bear this rule. The discovery of America, the invention of the printing-press, and the personality and independence of northern Kurope produced Luther and the Reformation, broke up the old regime, and brought in a new life to Europe. Spain. From Italy the wave of civilization which rolled over the peninsulas of the Mediterranean at last reached Iberia—the Spain and Portugal of today. The greater part of this peninsula is an elevated plateau, dry and hot in summer, cold in winter, its southern and western coasts only having the climate and prod- ucts of Greece and southern Italy. The difference of climate and the admixture with more southern races has given to the Spaniards and Portuguese a different complexion, temperament and character from the inhabitants of northern Europe. The sea-coast and harbors of Portugal invited its people to send _ out ships on voyages of discovery and trade along the coast of Africa. ; The peace which followed the war of Ferdinand and Isabella with the Moors left a multitude of restless spirits ready for any rash undertaking; and for them the discovery of America opened a wide field of adventure and led to the conquest of the New World and the Orient. Gold and silver poured into Spain, the labor of slaves was substituted for that of the freeman, and Spain became the first nation of the world, extending her em- pire over central Europe and the Netherlands; but wealth, luxury, and the religious despotism which reached highest de- velopment in the Inquisition led to her conflict with Great Britain and finally to her fall. Great Britain. Great Britain, protected by her insular position from foreign invasion, with a mild climate, abundant rainfall, fertile soil, good harbors, and vast mineral wealth, is most favorably situated for a great nation; yet for many generations before the discovery 16 G. G. Hubbard— Geographic Progress of Civilization. of America the Britons made little progress in population, wealth or civilization. Later, Hawkins, Drake and others saw that the African slave trade was very profitable; so with the aid of Elizabeth they built ships, captured negroes in- Africa, and carried them to the West Indies, where they were sold as slaves. Their fol- lowers became buccaneers and pirates, finding that occupation still more profitable. Leaders and seamen were thus trained for the war with Spain, which resulted in the destruction of the Armada and made England a maritime power. She founded colonies in North America, captured islands in the West Indies and Pacific, and subsequently acquired India; Cape Colony and the Gold coast in Africa, with all of Australia and New Zealand. England became a great commercial and mercantile nation, a mother of nations; coal and iron mines were opened, the steam engine and steam ships were invented; she became a manu- facturing nation, the carrier and banker of the world, and her wealth and prosperity increased and still continue to grow. Africa. Over against Greece and Italy and in sight of the Iberian peninsula is Africa, the eldest of the continents, the birth-place of European civilization. j In its physical aspect, its population and its civilization, Africa is unlike the other continents. It is a huge peninsula, with few bays and gulfs, scarcely any islands, without good harbors or rivers navigable from the ocean into the interior. It has only one-fourth as much sea-coast in proportion to its area as Europe, and only one-third as much as America. It is the only conti- nent in which the largest part of its territory lies within the tropics. As the éarth here spontaneously furnishes food for the sustenance of man, and as only scanty clothing is required, all inducements to either mental or manual labor are wanting. In all the continents we find traces of inhabitants of a different race from those now peopling them, but in no other country are the movements of different races so well marked as in Africa. The Arabs who now inhabit the northern part of Africa drove the former occupants, the Bantus, toward central Africa; they in their turn dispossessed the Negro, while the Negro dispos- sessed the Dwarfs and their kinfolk the Bushmen and the Hot- tentots, who were probably the aborigines. The Dwarfs retreated — os Slow Progress of the dark Continent. * 17 to the thick woods of the interior, the Bushmen and the Hotten- tots to the extreme southern lands of Africa. Cape Colony, in the southern part of Africa, in a mountainous region with salubrious climate and considerable fertile soil, was settled by the Dutch in 1652, only thirty years subsequent to _. the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. For over one hun- dred years the English have held it, but the population today is only 1,530,000, of whom but 370,000 are whites and 1,160,000 Africans. Itshould have been a fit home for the white race, but they have not flourished there. Contrast Cape Colony with the Argentine republic, on the same parallel of latitude and with a similar climate. The immigration into that state within the last ten years has been over 1,200,000; in 1869 the population was 1,877,000; in 1891, 5,200,000. Natal, formally occupied by a small number of boers, was seized by the British in 1843, when it had only a few inhabitants. It possesses great advantages of soil, a semi-tropical but agreeable and healthful climate; the land rising in plateaus from the coast affords several varieties of temperature. Emigrants at different times have poured into the Colony, yet although fifty years have elapsed since its settlement by the British, Natal has only 46,000 Europeans out of a population of over 540,000. Great numbers of Negroes, refugees from the neighboring Zulu country, have settled in Natal, attracted by the good government of the English. Algeria, in the north temperate zone, has a climate like that of Spain, Italy, and Greece. It was conquered by the French and has been held by them for over sixty years. France has sent many colonists to Algeria, but the increase in the Kuropean population has been very slow, and for a long time the deaths exceeded the births. The population in 1893 was estimated at 4,124,000, including about 267,000 French and 215,000 other Europeans. The French have had little better success in northern Africa than the English in the south. Within the last fifteen years the nations of Europe have made a few settlements in different parts of Africa, the results of which cannot be foretold. America. The physical geography of America is essentially different from that of the old world, very largely by reason of the fact that in the one the mountains run north and south, in the other 3—Nat. Grog. Maa., von. VI, 1894, 18 G. G. Hubbard— Geographic Progress of Civilization. east and west. It has less ocean front to the square mile than Europe, more than either Asia or Africa. When America was discovered its north temperate region was occupied by numerous tribes of Indians, living by hunting and fishing, almost always at war with one another. South of Ohio river the land was more easily tilled, and the tribes that in- habited it, unlike the aborigines of New England and New York, cultivated a little ground and were less savage. Still further southward, in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, the Cherokees, Chocktaws, and Natches had an organized government with fixed places of residence and tribal rights. They relied for their support more on agriculture than on the chase and fishing. The Pueblos, in New Mexico and Arizona, inhabiting the cliff dwellings, had advanced to a still higher state of civilization. Among the Pueblos, as well as among the more highly civilized tribes of Central America, were other tribes living in the same territory, much more savage than their neighbors, and in some cases even more savage than the Indians of New England. Still further southward, in Central America, in a warmer zone, tem- pered by its high mountains, was a higher civilization than in the north. Unfortunately, we know little either of this people or of the Incas of Peru. On the Pacific coast of North America, in a territory 50 miles wide and 1,000 miles long, were a vast number of different races and languages. In South America there was a greater variety of race and language than in North America east of the Sierra Nevada. In South America is the richest valley of the torrid or tem- perate zone, watered by the Orinoco and the Amazon. A rich soil, with a moist and hot climate and an abundance of rain, produces a most luxuriant vegetation. Mr Buckle says: * Here, where physical resources are the most powerful, where the soil is watered by the noblest rivers, the coast studded by the finest harbors, the profusion of nature has hindered social progress and opposed that accumulation of wealth without which prog- ress is impossible.” Fortunately, most valuable timber, the rubber tree, quinine, and tapioca yield abundant harvests with- out the labor of planting and watching from seed time to har- vest, and by quick gains for light work offer inducements to the laborer to acquire habits of industry. The inhabitants of this region are a mixed race of Spaniards, Indians, and Negroes, numbering about 37,000,000, of which 21 percent are white, 35 - percent Indians, 40 percent mixed, and 6 percent Negroes. In ee The Decadence of the Savage. 19 all these countries, even those where there are few whites, the pure Indian is steadily giving away to the mixed blood, appar- ently the product of natural selection. It would seem from this that the climate and country are better adapted to the increase of mixed blood than either the Spanish or the Indian. Central America and South America were settled by the Latin race, North America by the French and English.. The French early founded settlements,on the Saint Lawrence, and have ever since occupied the larger portion of its valley, though their population has never spread outside of this territory and por- tions of New England. They are a hardy, frugal, and industri- ous race, living in a cold, unfruitful country ; all their strength and resources are expended in obtaining a scanty livelihood, leaving them without opportunity to develop the artistic taste and culture natural to the French race. The United States owes its rapid growth and prosperity largely to the valley of the Mississippi. This great valley slopes from the east and west and toward the south, and has the largest ex- tent of rich arable iand in the temperate zone. West of the Mis- souri are great plains, and further westward among the Rockies great parks and plateaus, with short summers and long winters, so dry that neither heat nor cold are unpleasant. Here also are great mineral veins, bearing gold and silver, lead and copper, iron and coal, with rapid streams, fit country for the miner, the manufacturer, and the herdsman. In the far west, where there are only from five to fifteen inches of rainfall, numerous irri- eating ditches have been made, and by means of the storm water collected in reservoirs the desert has been made to yield most abundant harvests. The English ‘and their descendants have never mingled with the Indians, but have driven them from their homes, following the example of every other nation of the Old World in occupy- ing the territory of the aborigines. As soon as the rich plains and fertile prairies of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were ex- plored, thousands and tens of thousands of emigrants from the Old and New World flocked into a region where they could ob- tain homesteads for the asking. This emigration benefited both continents, for the population and wealth of the Old World has rapidly increased since emigration began, and never in the history of the world has so much wealth been created as by the settle- ment and cultivation of these valleys. 20. G. G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. Athough the blood of many nations is mingled in the United States, we find the same peculiarities prevailing along the same parallels of latitude today that existed in the Old World and in | the colonies when the country was settled. The people of the north are more practical and more inventive than the people of the south. In the northern states, in 1891, one patent was issued to each 3,257 of the population, in the southern states one to every 11,181 of the population; in Connecticut one to every 965, in Mississippi one to every 23,447. Slavery was early introduced into the United States, but its increase was very slow until the cotton-gin was invented, when ~ the raising of cotton became profitable and the slave popula- tion necessary to the cultivation rapidly increased. It is im- possible to ascertain how many Negroes were imported into the United States between 1619, when the first cargo was landed at Jamestown, and 1808, when the trade ceased. By a count made prior to the Revolution the number of slaves was a little over 500,000. The first census, in 1792, showed 757,000 colored, most of whom were slaves. In 1861 there were 4,440,000, of which 488,000 were free. Since the abolition of slavery the blacks have concentrated upon lands at once both hot and moist, in the middle of the Gulf states, and have increased more rapidly than the whites in the states of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. The negroes have increased 70 per- cent, the whites 60 percent. Table showing the relative Increase of Negroes in the Gulf States. 1860. | 1870. | 1880. 1890. Neproess ok aoe ane. 2,104,000 2,245,000 | 3,064,000 | 3,528,000 MnTEES IG Sed eae alc eS 2,120,000 | 2,195,000 | 2,805,000 | 3,377,000 : 4,224,000 | 4,440,000 | 5,869,000 | 6,905,000 ( Jamaica and San Domingo. A healthy climate, fertile soil, good harbors, and luxuriant vegetation, or even a large and prosperous white population, are not sufficient to ensure progress in civilization, Jamaica, the Where the Whites fall before the Blacks. 21 Queen of the Antilles, is one of the loveliest islands of the West Indies, with a tropical climate on the coast, in the interior high mountains with a temperate climate, a sea breeze by day and a land breeze by night stronger than are found elsewhere. In slavery times the sugar and coffee properties made the planters of Jamaica the richest men of England, and the white population steadily increased, while the deaths among the slaves exceeded the births, and the number was kept up only by the average annual importation of 9,000 slaves. The abo- lition of slavery caused the failure of the planters, the decrease of the white population, the abandonment of the greater part of the plantations and properties, and the rapid increase of the blacks. In 1861 there were 15,816 whites, 81,074 mixed, 346,376 blacks; total, 441,266. The proportion was one white man to six mixed or mulattoes and twenty-four blacks; today it is one white man to four mixed and sixty blacks, the total popula- tion being 639,491. San Domingo is even more beautiful than Jamaica. It has a healthful chmate, high mountains, beautiful scenery, fine harbors, a fertile soil which repays with three harvests a year the labor of the husbandman. The first European settlements in Amer- ica were on this island, four hundred years ago. As the Indian proved incapable of enduring the hard labor imposed by the Spaniards, Las Casas introduced Negroes to save the life of the Indian. His efforts were unsuccessful, for the Indians, number- ing it is said 2,000,000 when the Spaniards landed, have all perished. The white manruled for nearly three hundred years ; vast fortunes were made; the returns from slave labor were so great that the carrying trade employed 1,400 vessels with crews of 50,000 men. About one hundred years ago the blacks of Haiti threw off the French yoke, murdered the white men, and established what they called a republic. San Domingo subsequently threw off the Spanish yoke and declared itself free and independent. The Spaniards were killed as the French had been. The white man perished even as the Indian perished, and all trade and pros- perity passed away. Since then both states have sunk into the deepest barbarism, and the people, three-fourths black and one- fourth mixed blood, are daily becoming more savage. Fetichism and cannibalism are here combined, and the people have fallen lower in the scale of civilization than the Negroes of Africa, 22 G. G. Hubbard—Geographic Progress of Civilization. The most favored places in the world for climate, fertility of soil, and ease of access are, first, the West Indies; next the islands of Oceanica. Surpassing these in fertility and equaling them in salubrity of climate is the valley of the Amazon. These regions are now inhabited by the Negro, the Polynesian, and the Indian. The Negro in the equatorial regions, unless held as a slave, supplants the white man; the Polynesian and Indian both fade before the civilization of the white man. In the valley of the Amazon a mixed race of whites and Indians seems per- sistent, and the white element by a kind of natural selection predominates. A late writer says that these regions must be given up to in- ferior races; to this conclusion we cannot agree. In the progress of civilization man with his inventions and discoveries, by the applied power of steam and electricity, has practically annihi- lated time and space. In the early history of man he was con- trolled by and subject to his environment, which shaped his life and formed his character ; now he in turn controls his environ- ment. In our homes we temper the summer heat and make an equatorial climate in winter; we daily provide our tables with all the products of each season of the year and every clime ; we have begun even to understand and combat the microbes of the tropical regions that have brought sickness and death in their train. We have followed the progress of civilization from the rising to the setting sun; we have witnessed its decay in one country, followed by the rise of a higher civilization in another ; we have seen it cross the Atlantic to the New World where it has spread, ever widening and deepening its scope, until it has leavened the whole mass of humanity. We began with the proposition that in all the ages of the past civilization has been confined to the favored regions lying in the temperate zone; but with ever increasing knowledge there seems to be no reason to doubt that man will eventually bring under subjection all the adverse conditions of physical life and become the master of his environment, until the whole earth, even those regions heretofore supposed to be entirely unfit for habitation, shall own his power and become the abode of the highest intel- ligence and greatest civilization, — #e men = pO RMT St ty Nt Nat. Geog. Mag. STEREOGRAM OF THE SHAWANGUNK MOUNTAIN IN UtsteR Co,NEW YORK BY N.H.DARTON. U.S.Geol. Survey Scale 2 500 1000 6000/FsT \. VERTICAL. ella ir Es eS een : =/!34 ve / AMILES. HORIZONTAL Se a (The Base 1s at Sea Level.) LEGEND SHAWANGUNA GFT BSS nuoson Suances Nat. Geog. Mag. Vol. VI. Pl. 1, STEREOGRAM OF THE SHAWANGUNK MOUNTAIN IN U_stTeER Co,NEWYoRK BY N.H.DARTON. U.S.Geol. Survey Scale o $07 1000 6000/F VERTICAL, Capt pee 7 4 / AMES, HORIZONTAL Ee = <== fo —" (The Besers at Sea Level) \=1:34 LEGEND SHAWANGUNA GFIT HUDSON SHALES ea Neal Sedat ! Vrs _ MARCH 17, 1894 who shat HN de . AGAZINE Se ERNE TES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY l J Bs Nes Hf eM ‘ A ‘ L an { { ¥ ; } i 4 " DE hy e \ ; v ' ’! : H ‘ ( i aie , pire Hae yt What in : Pe Sorin RD 5 ABS » vy 4 ‘ x a>\ch's ( i / ; i 4 et ot af thats —< — VoL. VI, PP. 23-34, PLS. 1-3 MARCH 17, 1894 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SHAWANGUNK MOUNTAIN* BY N. H. DARTON UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Shawangunk yf mountain is a prominent range lying between Hudson river and the southern Catskills, in Ulster county, New York. To the eastward it rises from the Wallkill valley in steep inclines, surmounted by a high escarpment; to the westward it slopes to the Rondout valley. Along its axis it rises gradually south of Rosendale, and finally attains an elevation of 2,200 feet and a width of five miles. It continues to the southward, with somewhat decreased height and width, through New Jersey and Pennsylvania, where it is known as Kittatinny mountain, and gives rise to the Delaware, Lehigh and Susquehanna water-gaps. The well known summer resorts of lake Mohonk and lake Minnewaska are on the summit of Shawangunk mountain, in Ulster county, so that the region has become familiar to a large number of visitors. Unfortunately, however, no description of its geology has ever been published and the meagre references in the report of Mather} throw but little light on the subject. During the autumns of the past two years I have had occasion to spend a few days on the mountain to determine the salient * Published by permission of Professor James Hall, State Geologist, in advance of the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of New York. + Pronounced ‘‘Shongum,”’ according to the residents of the region. t Geology of New York, Report on the First Geological District, 1845, 4—Nar. Geog, Maa., von, VI, 1894. (23 24 N. H. Darton—Shawangunk Mountain. . features of its geology in Ulster county, and they were found to be of great interest. In this article there is presented a brief summary of the results of my observations, but in a report on the geology of Ulster county, now in preparation, there will be a somewhat more detailed description of the region. The structure of Shawangunk mountain in Ulster county is a particularly interesting illustration of close relation of rock texture to topography, for the presence of the mountain and its form are directly dependent on the structure of a relatively thin sheet of hard rock. In the accompanying stereogram (plate 1) an attempt has been made to represent its physiographic character, and the structure is shown in the cross-section at the ends of blocks into which the supposed model is divided. The mountain consists of a widely extended sheet of Shawangunk erit lying on soft Hudson shales. This sheet lies in a gently westward-dipping monocline which is corrugated by a series of gentle longitudinal flexures. To the westward it dips beneath shales and limestones of the succeeding formations in the Ron- dout valley ; to the eastward it terminates in long lines of high precipices which surmount steep slopes of Hudson shales. Its anticlinals give rise to high ridges and wide plateaus ; its syncli- nals constitute in greater part the intervening depressions. In several portions of the mountain the grit has been eroded off the crests of the anticlinals and the underlying slates are bared. This is the case in a wide area southeast of Ellenville, in a long strip extending from near lake Mohonk nearly to Rosendale, in a small area east of Wawarsing, and in the top of the mountain north of lake Minnewaska. Mather has suggested that the great cliffs of the region are due to faults, but I find this is not the case. Only one fault was found, and this was a small over- thrust in the Rosendale region. There are many slight faults of a few inches or feet, but they appear to be entirely in the grit. The surface of Shawangunk mountain is nearly everywhere very rugged, and cliffs and rocky slopes abound. These consist of snow-white grits, more or less mantled with dark lichens, and are remarkably picturesque. There are many cataracts, several beautiful rock-bound lakes, and widely extended views of the Catskills to the westward and the Hudson yalley to the eastward. The ruggedness is due to the exceptional hardness of the grits, the softness of the underlying shales, and a ten- dency to vertical jointing which gives rise to cliffs and clefts, —— ne — a The Rocks of the District. 5 ~ nN There are low lines of cliffs all over the surface of the mountain, especially to the southward, but along the eastern face, where the grit is being continually undermined by erosion of the slate, they are of great prominence, in some cases having a nearly ver- tical height of two hundred feet and extending continuously for many miles. The “points” are projections or promontories of the eastern edge of the grit beyond the general crest line, due to a less degree of recession. Buntico point, Paltz point, Gertrude nose and Sams point are the most prominent of these, but there are many others of minor importance. The cliffs on the surface of the ranges are of various heights and lengths, and rise along joint cracks. ‘They face in various directions, but a north-and- south trend is predominant. They are usually in irregular, dis- continuous steps on the slopes and face each other and enclose depressions of various sizes on the plateaus. The lakes for which the mountain is famous lie in basins of moderate depth and are all near the top of the range. They are nearly surrounded by cliffs of Shawangunk grit of greater or less height, which add greatly to their beauty. The grit is mainly a messive white or gray quartzite or conglomerate, aver- aging 250 to 300 feet thick. The proportion of pebbles is large but variable, many beds being fine. The pebbles and grains are quartz, and the matrix is siliceous. The conglomerate is the famous Esopus millstone, and has been largely quarried for two centuries. The relations of the Shawangunk grit to the Hudson shale in the Shawangunk mountain region is one of shght but persistent unconformity. The coarse grit lies directly on the eroded sur- face of the shales. This erosion has truncated low arches of the slate, but has channelled its surface only shghtly. Exposures of the relations are everywhere abundant. One of the best in- stances is along the road from Minnewaska to New Paltz, two miles south of lake Mohonk. Here along the mountain slope a very low arch of the grit is seen surmounting a truncated arch of shales of materially steeper dip. Diversity of dip is seen at every locality, varying from very slight to 0°, but several points were observed where it was hardly perceptible. The corrugations in the general monocline of the mountain are a series of anticlinals and synclinals which traverse the range diagonally from north-northeast to south-southwest and begin in succession from northeast to southwest, their axes rising gradu- 26 N. H. Darton—Shawangunk Mountain. ally to the southward. Beginning at the northern end of the range the principal feature is the anticlinal which brings up the cement between Rosendale and Whiteport. South of Rondout creek, opposite Rosendale, the upward pitch of this flexure in- creases rapidly, and the Shawangunk grit soon rises into a ridge of considerable altitude. . In a short distance from the creek the erits are eroded from the crown of the arch, and to the south- ward the underlying shales constitute a series of high but rounded hills extending along the center of the mountain. The occurrence of these high hills of soft rock is a striking feature, and they give a unique character to this portion of the moun- tain. Their presence is due to the former protection of the arch of Shawangunk grit by which they were originally covered. The grit in the flanks of this arch extends down the slopes of the mountain, where it dips beneath overlying formations in the valley on the western side and extends nearly or quite to the base on the eastern side. One mile and a half south of Ros- endale the range has the structure shown in the first section on the stereogram. It will be seen that the sheet of grit lying along the eastern slope of the mountain is considerably corru- rugated. This corrugation consists in the main of a western limb dipping more or less steeply eastward, and a shallow synclinal. In one portion of the ridge, there is a very abrupt anticlinal crumple in this synclinal which extends but a short distance in either direction and then flattens out into the gen- eral flexure. There is also a fault which extends from the Rosendale cement region. It gives rise to a sharp ridge which continues to the first road across the mountain, beyond which it dies out. Along the eastern face of the northeastern range of the mountain the dips are in greater part gently to the westward. Along the railroad they are 20°, and this is the average for some distance. On the first road across the mountain the dips are 60°, but this steep dip soon gives place to inclinations of not over 10°, and toward the southern end of the ridge the synclinal dies out, leaving a gentle dip eastward. This grit area lying along the eastern slope of the mountain terminates abruptly southward in a fine line of cliffs which, owing to the upward pitch of the bed in this direction, are of great elevation. This is Buntico point, one of the most prominent topographic features in the re- gion. Its character is shown in the stereogram. South of Buntico point the eastern crest and summit of Shawan- ‘CU VMHLOOS DNIMOO’T MNOHOW HMV’L ‘ 1S Wel VAIN UN OU ‘Bepl fos WN Structure North of Lake Mohonk. 27 eunk mountain consists of a great mass of Hudson shales, which are being rapidly and deeply eroded. They extend southward nearly to lake Mohonk, where the crest of the anticlinal is occu- pied by grit for some distance. The grit in the western limb of the anticlinal on the northern end of the mountain lies part way down the western slope and does not attain the prominence that it has in the area terminating in Buntico point. It constitutes a monoclinal ridge, with a line of cliffs along its eastern edge, above which the hills of Hudson shales rise several hundred feet. To the westward the Shawangunk grit dips beneath overlying formations in the synclinal valley of Coxingkill. On the opposite side of this valley, at High Falls, there rises one of the principal anticlinals of Shawangunk mountain, which soon brings up Shawaneunk grit in the low ridge on which the village is built. This ridge gradually increases in width and altitude southward, and near the line of the third section on the stereogram its crest is nearly as high as the ridge eastward, from which it is sepa- rated by the synclinal valley of the Coxingkill. PALTZ PT. Fiaure 1.—Cross-Section of eastern Ridges of Shawangunk Mountain through ‘Lake Mohonk, looking northward (S, Shawangunk Grit; H, Hudson Shale). Vertical scale exaggerated. South of Alligerville the mountain widens rapidly as flexure after flexure brings up the Shawangunk grit from the northwest- ward. The western ridge rises gradually on the upward pitch of the axis of the flexure, and finally becomes the highest part of the mountain east of Ellenville. Southwest of lake Mohonk there are five of these flexures, together with various small un- dulations, with a creek in each synclinal. Lake Minnewaska is in the crown of the anticlinal which rises at High Falls, and lake Awosting is on the western slope of the same flexure. These lakes are all situated near the eastern side of the moun- tain and about 150 feet below the crest. They are similar in relation and originated under almost the same conditions. Lake Mohonk occupies a north-and-south clett in the crown of the 28 N. H. Darton—Shawangunk Mountain. anticlinal which rises at Rosendale. The structure of lake Mo- honk is shown in figure 1. The lake basin is in Hudson shales, but it is bordered on the east and west by high cliffs of Shawangunk grit. To the south there is a gap in the front of the mountain through which the shales extend to the lake. The top of these shales is a few feet above the surface of the lake at its southeastern end, but the pitch carries them a few feet below the water surface toward the north and west. On plate 2 are shown some features of lake Mohonk. This view is looking to the southward and out of the gap in the eastern front of the mountain through which the Hudson shales extend to the lake. On the left is Paltz point, and to the right, in the distance, is Cope point, a projection of the southern extension of the eastern front of the mountain. Kast of the lake there is a thick mass of grit, which hes along the crest of the anticlinal. It begins a short distance north- ward and is terminated by very abrupt cliffs in Paltz poimt, near the southern end of the lake. The character and relations of this “point” are represented in the stereogram. At the head of the lake and the base of the southern end of the mass of grit in Paltz point the Hudson shales constitute a small plateau which surmounts the long eastern slope of the mountain. There is no cross-drainage way at the base of the cliffs and the reason for the abrupt termination of this point is obscure. The erit dips gently west-northwestward along the western side of Paltz point and very slightly eastward in its easternmost part. Northeast of the lake the dip is at a low angle to the west- ward, but there are several slight undulations. There is every- where a pronounced pitch northwestward. Owing to the west- erly dip the grits in the Paltz point ridge are somewhat lower just north of the lake than elsewhere. It will be seen from these statements that the lake lies slightly west of the center of the arch of the anticlinal, and all the dips along its shores are north- westward, although at very lowangles. The degree of dip rapidly increases down the western slope of the mountain into the syn- clinal valley of Coxingkill. The outlet of lake Mohonk is to the northward by a branch of Coxingkill. This branch flows through a slight depression separating the Paltz point range from the main mountain mass, and then obliquely down the flank of the anticlinal, ———-- Lake Minnewaska. 29 South of Paltz point the eastern front of the mountain pre- sents a nearly unbroken line of high cliffs for many miles along or near the crest of the anticline. The nature of a portion of this escarpment is shown in plate 3 Two miles south of lake Mohonk there is a shght depression in the crest line through which the road to lake Minnewaska passes, and there are several other depressions of less amount. Millbrook mountain is the culminating feature of this portion of the range, beyond which its front is somewhat more irregular in contour. Lake Minnewaska is similar to lake Mohonk in appearance, but it is somewhat larger. It was not ascertained whether its basin extends into the Hudson shales, for there is a continuous rim of grit surrounding it. As a very great thickness of grit is exposed above the water level in this vicinity, it seems probable that the bottom of the lake is in or very near the shales. ‘This probability is increased somewhat by the presence of the steep Fiaure 2.—Cross-Section of the eastern Ridges of Shawangunk Mountain through Lake Minnewaska, looking northward (S, Shawangunk grit ; H, Hudson shales). cliffs and the width of the valley or cleft in which the lake lies. In figure 2 there are shown the principal structural features at this locality. The cliffs which extend along the eastern side of the lake are very high and precipitous. As at lake Mohonk, the rocks are greatly fissured and are. traversed by many deep wide clefts. The dips are gently anticlinal about the Jake, which is on the axis of the flexure. but they increase in amount to the east and west. The lake empties to the southward through a wide gap, into the synclinal valley of the Coxingkill, and it may be re- garded as the headwaters of this stream. _ A miie northeast of the lake the anticlinal on which the lake is situated is crossed by the road to Port Hixon, and in the 30> N. Hf. Davton—Shawangunk Mountain. vicinity of the road the grit has been removed from the crown of the arch for some distance. ‘The road crosses the ridge in a gap onthe Hudson shales, and the edges of the grit give rise to high cliffs on either side. Down the slope aways, the grit out- crops on the flank of the arch, but the slate extends along the upper slopes of the mountain for some distance, especially on the east side. The occurrence of the slate in this inlymg area is a very striking feature, and the reason for the removal of the grit at this locality is not clear. South of lake Minnewaska the front of the ridge trends south- westward some distance, and the Coxingkill anticlinal and the anticlinal next west, pass out to the south. There is a promi- nent “ point” in this vicinity known as Gertrude nose, which is due to a deep incision in the front of the mountain made by a small branch of the Wallkill. This stream heads on the plateau south of the lake, passes over the edge of the grit in a series of falls, and has cut a deep gorge into the Hudson shales below. T'iqure 3.—Lake Awosting jrom the East-northeast, Sums Point inthe Distance. Lake Awosting is the largest lake of the series, and has a length of about a mile. It is surrounded in greater part by low clifis and rocky slopes, but near its eastern end there is a line of very high cliffs which extend in from the crest of the moun- tain eastward and constitutes a high, west-sloping plateau north- east of the lake. In figure 3 there is given a view of this lake based on kodac photographs. The basin of the lake does not appear to be in Hudson shales, although possibly they underlie its deeper portions. The grit dips gently westward along the lake and this dip continues over a wide area of surrounding region, On the west there is a long slope to the main Peterkill valley, which extends from a low cliff along the lake. The outlet of the lake is by a fork of the ‘CUVMLISVAHLAOS DNIMOO’'L NIVINOOW NNOONVYMVHS HO HOV NUHLS VL 0 Age ve Te) E'Id ‘VEST “IA TOA ‘Bew Hoey JBN Lakes and Cascades. 3 Peterkill which flows along the west-sloping grits for half a mile, and then in high falls over the grit into the kill. East of the confluence there is a narrow depression known as Dark hole, which extends southeastward up the slope of the moun- tain. It is rimmed by moderately high cliffs of west-dipping erit and was cut by a stream which empties into the Peterkill. On the southern side of Dark hole is the high plateau of which the eastern front constitutes the cliffs at the southeastern end of lake Awosting. The Peterkill valley from beginning to end extends along the western flank of the anticlinal on which lake Minnewaska is situated, and has a cliff of west-dipping grit on its western side and slopes of grit on its eastern side. Four miles below lake Awosting the’ kill passes over Awosting falls and then over a series of cascades, aggregating in all a fall of over 240 feet approximately. In Awosting falls there is a clear fall of sixty- odd feet. They area mile north of lake Minnewaska. In the gorge below the several falls there are high cliffs of grit for some distance, but owing to considerable pitch northward or down stream and a thickness of erit somewhat over 200 feet, the kill has not cut through to the Hudson shales. South of lake Awosting there are two small, shallow ponds on the summit of the mountain. Mud pond, at the head of Fly brook, the principal fork of the Peterkill, is one, and lake Mara- tanza is the other. Lake Maratanza empties eastward by a branch of the Wallkill which pitches over the edge of the grit on the crest of the mountain, in a great fall into a deep gulf of Hudson shales. The locality is known as Verkeerder falls. Between Gertrude nose and Sams point the crest of the moun- tain is very high, but for some distance the edge of the grit is broken into great terraces and there is a sloping bench of Hud- son shales of some width at the base. Several branches of Wall- kill drainage head in the crest of the mountain in this region and pass over the edge of the grit in falls of which the above- mentioned Verkeerder falls are the most noteworthy. In this region the mountain narrows and some of the flexures pass out to the southward. This narrowing is due to recession of the edge of the sheet of the Shawangunk grit, which is closely related to the upward pitch of the flexures. This pitch increases the height of the mountain southward, but with increased height 5—Nar. Grog. Maa., von, VI, 1894. 32 N. H. Darvton—Shawangunk Mountain. there is a corresponding increase of erosion in the soft underly- ing shales, which beyond certain mits causes rapid recession. This is illustrated by Sams point, where the maximum altitude of 2,240 feet is attained. The “ point” is a narrowing extension of the grit along the axis of a very flat synclinal, which finally terminates in a high narrow cliff presented southward. From the wide anticlinal area to the west the grit has been eroded and the Hudson shales occupy the surface in a group of very high hills. These hills are surrounded by cliffs of the grit which on the eastern side rise somewhat above their summits, on the northern are about even with their higher summits, and on the western lie along their flanks. Originally the grit area in this region and southward was as wide as it is now at lake Mo- honk, but owing to the greater height to which the northern pitch of the flexures carried the grit, it was here more rapidly and widely undermined and removed. It is the grit on the western limb of the anticlinal that lies on the western flanks of the shale hills, constituting a monoclinal ridge of considerable prominence which extends from Ellenville far southward into Pennsylvania. This monoclinal mountain consists of a single- crested ridge of the Shawangunk erit, with a long slope up the dip from the valley westward, which terminates in an east- facing cliff of grit surmounting long rolling slopes of shale on the eastern side of the mountain. Its structure near the southern edge of Ulster county is shown in the bottom section on the stereogram, and this is typical for the greater part of its course. In the valley westward there is a succession of formations overly- ing the grit, as shown on the left of the sections in plate 1. They are the Clinton red shales, Salina water lime, Helderberg lme- stone, Oriskany sandstone, Esopus shales, Onondaga limestones, and a great mass of Devonian shales and sandstones which ex- tend into the Catskills. The dips along the western slope of the mountain are low north of Wawarsing, but they rapidly increase southward to an average of about 60° in the vicinity of Ellen- ville. In this region of steep dips the streams flowing down the steep western slope have cut deep gorges, which extend through the grit into the underlying shales. The two streams south of Ellenville are exaggerated examples of this, and they have been largely instrumental in baring the Hudson shales on the anticlinal area behind Sams point. The two streams just north of Ellenville also cut into the shales, but they are very Gorges and Glaciation. 33 small and have only formed narrow gorges. Opposite Napa- noch is a small creek which has cut a deep gorge into the shales, and in the higher part of the slope has bared the grit from an area of considerable size, which is surrounded by high cliffs. The stream opposite Wawarsing has cut a gorge and removed an area of the grit on the upper slopes of the mountain, but does not cut through to the shale. The head of this depression ex- tends into the head of the depression opposite Napanoch, and both are surmounted on the east by a continuous line of high cliffs. The stream which flows out of the mountain at Port Hixon is larger than the others and has cut a deep, wide gorge ; but owing to the lower dip of the grit it does not appear to have cut through to the shales to any great extent. No shales were observed in place in the depression, but a small amount of shale débris was noticed at one point. Everywhere along the steep slopes there are clefts in the grit, some of which appear to extend down to the shales. One of these is the “ Ice cave,” a locality which is widely famous in the region. It is high in the slope, about two miles east-northeast of Ellenville. Ice and snow re- main in it in greater or less amount, and in some seasons they are preserved entirely through the summer and autumn. In the vicinity there is also an old copper mine from which large sup- plies of fine quartz crystals were obtained some years ago. The top of the mountain southwest of Wawarsing is a wide plateau which is traversed by the valley of Stony creek. Its surface is very irregular and low cliffs of the bare grit abound. The grit in the higher portion of Shawagunk mountain nearly everywhere presents a basined surface. These basins are depressed an inch or two below the general level and are of various sizes and shapes. They usually contain pools of water and some sand and pebble detritus. They are mostly smooth and even polished and are distributed all over the motintain, but particularly on the western slope. With the polishing are associated lines of glacial scorings and striation which are con- spicuous at nearly every locality. Julien* has recorded the direc- tion of some of these strive and scorings. The general direction is southwestward and the average depth is between one-sixteenth and one-eighth of an inch. In the vicinity of Sams point the most abundant scratches trend south 46° west and south 29° west. * New York Academy of Sciences, Trans., vol. ili, pp. 22-29. 54 N. H. Darton—Shawangunk Mountain. A few were observed somewhat more to the westward in direc- tion, one-fourth inch in depth. ‘In the vicinity of lake Mohonk, about the hotel and on the northwestern slope, south 10° west is the general direction ; on the southeastern side of the mountain and on the road to Alliger- ville, it is south 40° east; and at Sky Top, south 18° east. At lake Minnewaska the trend is south 10° west. There is but little foreign glacial drift on the summit of the range, so far as ob- served, but there is considerable in the adjoining valleys. The origin and history of the lakes are not entirely clear, but they appear to be due to glacial agencies. The principal feature has been a local deepening and widening of a preéxistent valley, aided, at least in the case of lake Mohonk, by the presence of shales at the point now occupied by the lake. They do not ap- pear to be due in great measure to damming by glacial or other débris or to dislocation. Owing to its prominence the mountain has been long exposed to erosion. Originally the grit was overlain by a great mass of limestones and shales and the rocks of the Catskills, but these were removed far down into the Rondout valley at an early period. During the glacial epoch there was great erosion and the removal of great masses of the grit, which is now found in drift far to the southward. To the glaciation, too, probably is due the abruptness of Paltz point and other features of that sort. The grit also originally extended far to the eastward, but, owing to long-continued undermining by the removal of the soft, under- lying shales, its front has receded to its present position. This recession is still actively in progress, and every year there fall great masses from the front of the mountain. One of the regions of weakness is Paltz point, for its base is exposed to erosion on several sides, and it will eventually disappear. Probably before it is gone the streams heading near its southern end will cut back through the shales at the head of lake Mohonk, and this beautiful body of water will be tapped. Of course this is all very remote, so far as human history goes, and artificial means will stay its progress in some measure, but it will all be accom- plished in the near future, geologically speaking. Lakes Minne- waska and Awosting lie so far back from the front of the moun- tain that they will survive lake Mohonk by a very long time, om eo eke se iy, CRN R CERES at: By hi a é : 4 ’ ie if " + ey { : : "APRIL 25, 1894. Se \RRINGTON sit taal nen, AMIR Mn ag ial i ‘ ik F \ ‘ ey f 4 i{ ¥ tn , i) b { y ‘ wei Le Hay Md ds I ‘ - ‘ bd , foal Chis. . wodraPnic Socrery der ie Y iy 4 ned Tea PE ens ties ae! a tale ohare Tigh ata ny Baga Ne eile iy TP! abe Vice VoL. VI, PP. 35-62 APRIL 25, 1894 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE WEATHER MAKING, ANCIENT AND MODERN BY MARK W. HARRINGTON The subject of ancient and modern weather making is a very large one—too large to be treated with entire generality. I shall discuss it rather from the American standpoint, and shall use cases in the Old World simply for the purpose of illustration and for completeness. Three distinct sorts of weather-making have been employed. The first depends on superstitious and religious methods; then follows on this the degradation of these religious ideas into folk-lore remnants, which have a curious persistency in civilized countries. Both these are psychic. Opposed to them is the third method, mainly American and intensely practical. with which some history and literature are connected. I. Superstirious AND ReEuicious Meruops. RAIN MAKING AND STOPPING.* Many Indian tribes have attempted to produce rainy or dry weather, according to requirements. Among these may be men- tioned the Mandan, the Muskingum, the Moqui, the Natchez, * These cases of weather-making among the North American Indians were collected for me by Dr Fuller Walker, of the Weather Bureau, who searched through the literature available in Washington. 6—Nar. Grog. Maa., vor. VI, 1894. (35) 36. M. W. Harrington— Weather making. Zuni, Choctaws, and others. For this purpose pipes were smoked, tobacco was burned, prayers and incantations were offered, arrows were discharged toward the clouds, charms were used, and various other methods were employed. Classifying by tribes the processes employed, we turn first to the Iroquois. Mrs E. A. Smith, in her “ Myths of the Iroquois,” says: In a dry season, the horizon being filled with distant thunder-heads, it was customary to burn what is called by the Indians real tobacco as an offering to bring rain. On occasions of this nature the people were notified by swift-footed heralds that the children, or sons, of Thunder were in the horizon, and that tobacco must be burned in order to get some rain. * As to the Muskingum, Heckewelder, in his “Account of the Indians of Pennsylvania” (Philadelphia, 1819, page 229), says: There are jugglers, generally old men and women, who get their living by pretending to bring down rain when wanted, and to impart good luck to bad hunters. In the summer of 1799 a most uncommon drought happened in the Muskingum country (Ohio). An old man was applied to by the women to bring down rain, and, after various ceremonies, de- clared that they should have rain enough. The sky had been clear for nearly five weeks, and was equally clear when the Indian made this declaration ; but about four o’clock in the afternoon the horizon became overcast, and, without any thunder or wind, it began to rain, and con- tinued to do so until the ground became thoroughly soaked. Heckewelder adds that ‘‘ Experience had doubtless taught the juggler to observe that certain signs in the sky and in the water were the forerunners of rain.” Among the Natchez, according to Father Charlevoix,t jugglers not only pretended to cure the sick, but also professed to procure rain and seasons favorable for the fruits of the earth. Their in- cantations were often directed to the dispersion of clouds and the expulsion of evil spirits from the bodies of the afflicted. In the third report of the Bureau of Ethnology it is stated by J. Owen Dorsey that “ When the first thunder is heard in the spring of the year the Elk people [among the Omaha Indians] call to their servants, the Bear people, who proceed to the sacred tent of the Elk gens. When the Bear people arrive one of them opens the sacred bag and, after remoying the sacred pipe, hands ‘it to one of the Elk men, with some of the tobacco from the elk *2d Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology for 1880-’81 (1883), p. 72. + Voyage to North America, Dublin, 1776, vol. ii, p. 203. ba es Indian Rain Ceremonials. nT bladder. Before the pipe is smoked it is held toward the sky, and the thunder god is addressed. * * * ‘At the conclu- sion of this ceremony the rain always ceases, dnd the Bear people return to their homes.’ ” * Catlin, in his “ Life among the Indians ” (page 78), says that he found that the Mandan had ‘ rain-makers” and also “ rain- stoppers,” who were respected medicine men “ From the aston- ishing facts of their having made it rain in an extraordinary drought, and for having stopped it raining when the rain was continuing to an inconvenient length.” He adds: For this purpose, in a very dry time, the medicine men assembled in the medicine lodge, and sitting around a fire in the center, from day to day smoking and praying to the Great Spirit for rain, while a requisite number of young men volunteered to make it rain. Each one of these, by ballot, takes his turn to mount to the top of the wigwam at sunrise in the morning, with his bow and arrows in his hand and shield on his arm, talking to the clouds and asking for rain, or ranting and threatening the clouds with his bow, commanding it to rain. After several days of un- successful attempts have passed off in this way with a clear sky, some one more lucky than the rest happens to take his. stand on a day on which a black cloud will be seen moving up. When he sees the rain actually fall- ing he lets his arrow fly, and pointing.says: ‘‘ There! my friends, you have seen my arrow go. There js a hole in that cloud. We shall soon have rain enough.’? When he comes down he is a medicine man. The doctors give him a feast and a great ceremony and the doctor’s rattle. When the doctors commence rain-making they never fail to succeed, for they keep up the ceremony until the rain begins to fall. Those who have once succeeded in making it rain, in the presence of the whole village, never undertake it a second time. They would rather give. other young men a chance. A similar account of the Mandan ceremony is given by Mr John Frost, in his book ‘‘ The Indians of North America ” (New York, 1845, page 109). He says: It was in a time of great drought that I once arrived at the Mandan village on the upper Missouri. The young and the old were crying out that they should have no green corn. After a day or two the sky grew a little cloudy i in the west, when the medicine men assembled together in great haste to make it rain. The tops of the wigwams were soon crow ded. In the mystery lodge a fire was kindled, around which sat the rain- makers, burning sweet-smelling herbs, smoking the medicine pipe and calling on the Great Spirit to open the door of the skies to let out the * “Qmaha Sociology,’’ op. cit., 1884, p. 227. B80hs M. W. Harrington— Weather making. rain. At last one of the rain-makers came out of the mystery lodge and stood on the top of it with a spear in his hand, which he brandished about in a commanding and threatening manner, lifting it up as though he were about to hurl it at the heavens. He talked loud of the power of his medicine, holding up his medicine bag in one hand and his spear in the other; but it was of no use, and he came down in disgrace. For several days the same ceremony continued, until a rain-maker, with a head-dress of the skins of birds, ascended the top of the mystery lodge, with a bow in his hand and a quiver at his back. He made a long speech, for the sky was growing dark, and it required no great knowledge of the weather to foretell: rain. He shot arrows to the sunrise and sundown points of the heavens, and also to the north and south, in honor of the Great Spirit, who could send rain from all parts of the sky. A fifth arrow he retained until it was almost certain that rain was at hand. Then, sending up the shaft from his bow with all his might, to make a hole in the dark cloud over his head; he cried aloud for the waters to pour down at his bidding and to drench him to the skin. He was brandishing his bow in one hand and his medicine in the other, when the rain came down in torrents. Among the Blackfeet Indians, according to W. P. Clark in his “ Indian Sign Language” (Philadelphia, 1885, page 72): The medicine man has a separate lodge, which faces the east. He fasts and dances to the sun, blowing his whistle. He is painted in different colors, and he must have no water, and only after dark can he eat, and then only the inner bark of the cotton-wood tree. A picture of the sun is painted on his forehead, the moon, ursa major, etc, on his body. The dance continues for four days, and should this medicine man drink it is sure to cause rain, and if it [does not] rains no other evidence of his weakness is wanted or taken. He is deposed as high priest at once. Mr W. Noble of Indian territory says that ‘The Choctaws, during a severe drought, will fasten a fish to one of their num- ber, who then goes into the water and remains there every day for two weeks in order to cause it to rain.” He adds that ‘In wet weather, if they wish the rain to cease, they go to a sand bank, put sand in a pan, and dry it over a fire.” Among the Moqui, according to Schooleraft : There is acharm used for calling down rain. It consists of a small quantity of wild honey wrapped up in the inner fold of the husk of the maize. To produce the effect desired it is necessary to take a piece of the shuck which contained the wild honey, chew it and spit it upon the ground which needs the rain. * * “ History,’’ ete, vol. iii, p. 208. tain Ceremonials in South America. 39 Captain J. G. Bourke, in his “Snake Dance of the Moqui” (page 120) says: There was painted on the east wall a symbolical design, or ‘ prayer,” representing three rows of clouds in red and blue, from which depended long narrow black and white stripes, typical of rain, while from right and left issued long red and blue snakes, emblematic of lightning. This was a prayer to the god of clouds to send refreshing rains upon the Moqui crops. * * * Yellow was used in all prayers for pumpkins, green for corn, and red for peaches. Among the Zuni, according to Stevenson, medicine sticks were supposed to influence rain. These little sticks are found hidden beneath the rafters of nearly every house in Zuni.* Passing a little further from home we find, in Acosta’s ‘‘ His- tory of the Indies,’+ some accounts of rain producing and weather making among the Peruvian natives. According to him a Peruvian king in his lifetime caused a figure to be made wherein he was represented, which they called Huaugue, which signifies brother. They carried this image to the wars and in procession for rain or fair weather, making sundry feasts and sacrifices to it. They also pursued other methods. “ In matters of importance they offered up alpacas, hanging the beast by the right fore-leg, turning his eyes to the sun, speaking certain words according to the quality of the sacrifice they slew ; for if it were of color their words were addressed to the god of thunder and lightning, that they might want no water” (page 341). If they wanted water, to procure rain they set a black sheep tied in the middle of a plain, pouring much chica about it, and giving it nothing to eat until it rained (page 376). This is practiced (says Acosta, 1571-1588), at this day in many places in the month of October. OTHER WEATHER MAKING. What precedes relates to rain making or stopping. A some- what similar series of facts occur among the American Indians concerning other elements of the weather, but their energies in this direction seem to be expended chiefly in the control of the winds. It appears that the Kansas gens of the Omaha are Wind people, and to them is especially entrusted the control of the *2d Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 371. + Hakluyt Society edition, vol. ii, pp. 312-315. 40 M. W. Harrington— Weather making. wind. Mr J. Owen Dorsey says the Kanze (Kansa or Kaw) gens of the Omaha tribe, being Wind people, “ flap their blankets to start a breeze.”* He adds that when there is a blizzard the other Kansa tribe of Indian territory beg the members of the Wind gens to interpose, saying, “O grandfather, I wish good weather. Cause one of your children to be decorated.” Then the youngest son of a Kanze man, say one about four feet high, is chosen for the purpose, and painted with red paint. The youth rolls over and over in the snow, reddening it for some distance all around him. This is supposed to stop the blizzard. The following account is from a book entitled ‘‘ The Fourteen loway Indians” (London, 1844), and relates to raising wind: A packet ship, with Indians on board, was becalmed for several days near the English coast. It was decided to call upon the medicine man to try the efficacy of his magical powers with the endeavor to raise the wind. After the usual ceremony of a mystery feast, and various invo- cations to the spirit of the wind and ocean, both were conciliated by the sacrifice of many plugs of tobacco thrown into the sea; and in a little time the wind began to blow, the sails were filled, and the vessel soon wafted into port. The Indians also have many associations with thunder. Madam Lucy Elliot Keeler, in a paper recently contributed to the “American Agriculturist ” for December, 1892, says: The Dakotas used to have a company of men who claimed the exclusive power and privilege of fighting the thunder. Whenever a storm which they wished to avert threatened, the thunder fighters would take their bows and arrows, their magic drum, and a sort of whistle made of the wing-bone of a war eagle, and, thus armed, run out and fire at the rising cloud, whooping, yelling, whistling and beating their drum to frighten it down again. One afternoon a heavy black cloud came up, and they re- paired to the top of a hill, where they brought all their magic artillery into play against it; but the undaunted thunder darted out a bright flash which struck one of the party dead as he was in the very act of shaking his long-pointed lance against it. After that they decided that no human power could quell the thunder. In the “ Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales,” published by George Bird Grinnell, we find the following: An old Pawnee Indian said: ‘‘ Up north, where we worshipped at the time of the first thunder, we never had cyclones. Down here [Indian territory], now that this worship has been given up, we have them.” * 3rd Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 241. Indian Weather Ceremoniatls. 41 The Indians in some cases have ideas of controlling the weather more generally, and Dablin, in his “* Relation of the Voyages, Discoveries and Death of Father James Marquette,’ writing in 1671-1675, says: It now only remains for me to speak of the calumet, than which there ‘is nothing among the Indians [7. e., the Illinois] more mysterious or more esteemed. * * * They esteem it particularly because they regard it as the calumet of the sun, and, in fact, they present it to him to smoke when they wish to obtain calm or rain or fair weather. Even the control of fog has been attempted, as shown by the following quotation from Dorsey’s account of the Turtle sub- gens of the Omaha: + In the time of a fog the men of this subgens drew the figure of a turtle on the ground with its face to the south. On the head, tail, mid- dle of the back and on each leg were placed small pieces of a (red) breech-cloth with some tobacco. This they imagined would make the fog disappear very soon. But it is not only the pagan Indians who have tried their hand at weather-making. Their christianized descendants have also tried to control these operations of nature. In the transi- tion times between paganism and Christianity occurred some events which throw a curious and instructive side-light on this question, and two of these I will now give. Mr Parkman says that while the Jesuits labored with the Hurons a severe drougth came upon the fields. The sorcerers put forth their utmost power, and from the tops of the houses yelled incessant invocations to the spirits. All was in vain. A re- nowned “ rain-maker,” seeing his reputation tottering under his repeated failures, bethought him of accusing the Jesuits, and gave out that the red color of the cross which stood before their house scared away the bird of thunder and caused him to fly another way. On this a clamor arose. The popular ire turned against the priests, and the obnoxious cross was condemned to be cut down. The Jesuits said: “If the red color of the cross frightens the bird of thunder, paint it white.” This was done, but the clouds still kept aloof. The Jesuits followed up their advantage. ‘Your spirits cannot help you. Now ask the aid of Him who made the world.” Heavy rains occurring soon * Hist. Coll. of Louisiana, part iv, 1852, pp. 34-55. +3d Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 240. AQ M. W. Harrington— Weather making. after, it is said that many Indians béheved in the white man’s Great Spirit and presented themselves to the priests for baptism (Alice Elliot Keeler). A somewhat similar story is told of Peru by Acosta. It ap- pears that the Santa Cruz Indians became Christians because of the success of a renegade soldier in making rain. This soldier, seeing the native Indians “ In a great extremity for water, and that to procure rain they used many superstitious ceremonies, according to their usual manner,” said to them that if they would do as he said they toad presently have rain, which they willinely offered to perform. ‘‘ Then the soldier made a ereat cross, which he placed on a high and eminent place, com- manding them to worship it and to demand water, which they did. A wonderful thing to see, there presently fell such an abundance of rain, as the Indians took so great devotion to the holy cross as they fled unto it in all their necessities, and obtained all they demanded, so as they broke down their idols.” * The quotation from Acosta indicates the attitude of the In- dians of middle latitudes on this subject. This attitude, as is well known to those familiar with the Latin-American countries, is preserved unchanged among their descendants. Interesting illustrations of it can be picked up any day even as far north as Arizona and New Mexico, and every traveller in Latin-America has several at his disposal. As.the quintessence of them all I present a clipping from the New York Tribune to which my at- tention was called by Dr T. C. Mendenhall. Se non é vero é ben trovato. The extract runs as follows In the department of Castaflas there had been no rain for nearly a year, and the people were brought to such a pass that they were actually dying of thirst, to say nothing of the total destruction of all crops and other agricultural industries. “El Pueblo Catélico,’’ of New San Salgadon prints a number of reso- lutions promulgated by the principal alcalde of the town and department of Castafias. They are as follows: ‘Considering that the Supreme Creator has not behaved well in this province, as in the whole of last year only one shower of rain fell; that in this summer, notwithstanding all the processions, pr ayers and praises, it has not rained at all, and consequently the crops of Castafias, on which depend the prosperity of the whole department, are entirely ruined, it is decreed: ‘‘Article 1. If within the peremptory period of eight days from the '* Op. cit., vol. ii, p. 524. The Prayer Method reversed. 43 date of this decree rain does not fall abundantly, no one will go to mass or say prayers. : ‘Article 2. If the drougth continues eight days more, the churches and chapels shall be burned, and missals, rosaries, and other objects of deyo- tion will be destroyed. “Article 5. If, finally, in a third period of eight days it shall not rain, all the priests, friars, nuns, and saints, male and female, will be beheaded. And for the present permission is given for the commission of all sorts of sin, in order that the Supreme Creator may understand with whom he has to deal.’”’ The most remarkable feature of this affair is the fact that four days after these resolutions were passed the heaviest rainfall known for years was precipitated on the burning community. Il. Fotk-LorE REMNANTS.* Among the many curious remnants of folk-lore which we find in connection with the subject of weather making none is more curious than the idea that birds “call for rain.” Whenever this expression is ysed the evident intention is, as is well known to those who are familiar with this mode of speech, to express the idea that they demand the rain, and that rain is likely to follow because of this demand. For instance, the call of the robin, heard so frequently, is interpreted to mean, ‘ Bring out your skillet, bring out your skillet, the rain will fill it.” In popular estimation this is a “call for rain.” This association with our American robin is very general. In Maine and Massachusetts they are said to “sing for rain” (Miss F. D. Bergen). The American quail is also said to “ call for rain,” and its ery is in- terpreted to be, “More wet, more wet” (Dr Robert Fletcher). The call of the loon is given the same meaning in so widely separated localities as Cape Breton, the state of Washington, and Florida (Mr C. A.Smith). The same power is attributed, gener- ally in the Old World, to many other birds, as ducks, geese, crowsand ravens. From Pennsylvania (William Schrock) comes the quaint conception expressed in the following rhyme : The goose and the gander Begin to meander ; The matter is plain, They are dancing for rain. * This series of associations of natural objects with weather-making, in the sense of a weather fetich—a weather maker, not simply a weather forecaster—is taken from the collections of weather proverbs made by the Signal Service and Weather Bureau. 7—Nart. Geoa. Maa., von. VI, 1894. tt M. W. Harrington— Weather making. But the birds are not only effective in making rain; they can exert still greater influence. The kildee, or killdeer plover, is said, in Maryland, to call up the wind by his ery of “ kildee, kildee!” while to kill him would cause a violent storm (Dr Fletcher). The Kiowa of Indian territory attribute to the kill- deer the bringing of spring (James Mooney, Washington). Another popular association between animals and rain is the idea that by certain treatment of some animals definite results in the way of, rain-making can be obtained. For instance, on Santee river, in South Carolina, it is believed that if you catch an alligator, tie him to a tree, and whip him to death it will be certain to bring rain (Dr W. W. Anderson). This seems to be a fragment of negro folk-lore. In Massachusetts it is said that if you see or step on a frog it is a sure sign of rain, while in Maine they say, “ Kill a frog and it will rain before morning” (Miss F. D. Bergen). This association of rain with the toad is general over the United States. Still another folk-lore remnant of the same sort relates to snakes. It is a curious fact that among many races the snake is supposed to have some relations with the weather. Mr James Mooney says, “The belief in a con- nection between rain and snakes is quite general among Indian tribes. The snake dance is intended to bring rain. The Indians of Indian territory turn a dead snake on its back to bring rain.” It is a piece of negro folk-lore that hanging a dead snake on a tree will bring rain in a few hours. Further northward it runs “ Hang up a snake skin and it will bring rain.” This refers to the cast-off skin. In northern Illinois the expression is, “ Hang up a snake’s cast-off skin on the crab-apple tree and it will bring rain.” The snake has played a very important part in weather making, and to it has been attributed many other magical powers. An interesting series of superstitions with reference to weather making are those which are common to sailors, who haye a well known half-serious belief that one can raise wind by whis- tling. In Newfoundland they say, “ Stick a knife in the main- mast and whistle, and it must produce wind.” In Newfound- land, also, they have an idea that if a vessel is becalmed wind can be produced by throwing overboard a half-penny. Another notion, common also to the same sailors, is that if you put the end of the sheet overboard it will produce wind, and that if you hit it three times across the thwarts it will stop the rain. Mr Methods of Wind making. 45 Kinahan, illustrating the sincerity of the belief in the power of whistling in raising wind, says: ‘Ina dead calm you may whis- tle for wind, except in a dangerous place. Crossing from Skib- bereen to Clear island, county Cork, a friend of mine was very nearly getting into a row for inadvertently whistling.” This belief is very general. In California sailors say that one may whistle softly for a breeze, but that it is dangerous to indulge in loud or thoughtless whistling, as it may bring a gale. Here the skipper scratches the mizzen-mast for a fair wind. Sailors profess great confidence in the ability of the cat to raise the wind, and are accustomed to say that the cat carries the wind in her tail. Cats have the general reputation of being very weather-wise. On shipboard especially, it is considered imprudent to provoke a cat, because she is assumed to have a certain share in the arrangement of the weather. Imprudence of this sort appears, however, to have no terrors for the Soudan- ese In western Java, for, when rain is needed, they form in procession with gongs and clappers, take their cats to the nearest streams, where the animals are sprinkled and bathed. Many sailors also have a very curious notion that hen’s eggs on board ship produce contrary winds, and on the occurrence of such winds they are likely to insist that the eggs must be thrown overboard. Another of these folk-lore remnants of sailors is the idea that there is a distinct relation between the albatross and wind. This superstition has been embalmed in most attractive form by Coleridge in his “ Lay of the Ancient Mariner.” One stanza runs as follows: For all averred I had killed the bird That made the breeze to blow. Oh, wretch! said they, the bird to slay That made the breeze to blow. e In addition to the above folk-lore remnants there are some methods which are purely magical. The earliest reference to this sort which I have found is the case of Sdpater. He is said to have caused a horrible famine in Asia Minor by “chaining the winds.” He was put to death by Constantine—probably for this reason, as this crime was forbidden by the laws of the Twelve Tables as well as later in the Theodosian code. * Forbes: Eastern Archipelago, p. 75. 46 M. W. Harrington— Weather making. The association of weather making with the witches in Fin- land is familiar. Steele, in his “ Medieval Lore,” from Bartholo- mew Anglicus (about 1260), referring to the people in Finland, says: The men * * * occupy themselves with witchcraft, and so to men that sail by their coasts, and also to men that abide with them for default of wind; they prefer wind to sailing, and so they sell wind. They used to make a clue [skein] of thread, and they make divers knots to be knit therein, and then they command to draw out of the clue to three knots, more or less, as they will have the wind more soft or strong; and for their misbelief fiends move the air and arise strong tempests, or soft, as they draweth of the clue more or less knots; and sometimes they move the wind so strongly that the wretches that believe in such doings are drowned by the rightful doom of God. The elder bush is especially associated with weather making. The witches were thought to make bad weather by stirring water with branches of the elder. Still another remnant of ancient superstition is, according to Aubrey (1696), to the effect that ‘‘On Malvern hills, in Wor- cestershire, and thereabouts, when they farm their corn and want wind they cry ‘ Youle! youle! youle!’ to invite it, which word, no doubt, is a corruption of Aolus, the god of the winds” (Dr R. Fletcher). III. Prystcan Mrerxops. WEATHER MAKERS. What precedes relates to purely psychic methods of control- ling the weather or the elements. The collection which it pre- sents has been made in no spirit of disrespect, but solely in that of the collection and scientific comparison of facts. I have great respect for all sincere religious belief and great interest in folk- lore remnants—fragements of what have once been great psychic structures—ruins about the tombs of the ancients. What fol- lows is intensely jfin-de-siccle and treats of the paradoxer in a well-developed stage. The paradoxer deserves a respect to be measured by the sufficiency of his information and the correct- ness of his logic. He is a possible benefactor of the world, a potential great man. Galileo was a paradoxer—very unwel- come to the Aristotelians of his time. Kepler was a rank para- doxer to his contemporaries, and Newton was a paradoxer to the Cartesians of his day. . The Ways of Paradoxers. 47 Time will not be spent on rash paradoxers in the field of weather making. We shall only consider those who have some such guarantee as a patent, an appropriation, or genuine learn- ing. As an illustration of the rash paradoxers I will simply mention two, one the man who proposed to destroy blizzards hy a line of coal-stoves along our northern boundary from Red river to the continental divide, and the other a man who proposed to ameliorate the weather of New England and the Canadian provinces by damming the strait of Belleisle. | WEATHER MAKING. We pass first to the treatment for tornadoes. M Weyher has made laboratory tornadoes of a mild and gentle character, but they contain no suggestion as to how to treat this pathologic _ phenomenon of the weather. A treatment has been suggested which is heroic and may pos- sibly be effective. It is, however, a local application, and the chief difficulty is to have it ready when and where wanted. The method proposed is that of a great explosion in the tornado itself. Many plans have been suggested, and two patents have been granted. I will consider the first, that of Mr J. B. Atwater, of Chicago (number 370,845, 1887). A strong box with a double bottom is firmly supported on a pole erected at a suitable point, probably a mile or so southwest of the village to be protected. The upper bottom is fixed and the space above it is filled with an explosive and firmly closed. In holes in the upper bottom are inserted fulminating caps and these project below its lower surface. The lower bottom slides up and down. Then, if a high wind drives the lower bottom against the upper with such force as to flash the caps, the explosion follows, and the tornado (if present) suffers the effects which a tornado will suffer when a powerful explosion occurs in its immediate vicinity. What these effects will be we do not yet know. It is said, with enough repetition to make it fairly worthy of credence, that a cannon fired into a waterspout destroys the latter. If such a disturbance destroys the gentler waterspout, it may be worth while to try a larger one on the more intense tornado. Perhaps it will be effective; we can be more positive when it has been tried. Many other schemes have been proposed for the control of the elements of the weather. Most of them have an objectionable 48 M. W. Harrington— Weather making. side, notably in rain making, which can be pointed out here as well as elsewhere. It is this: The phenomenon to be produced cannot probably be controlled as to area covered, and may occur where it is not wanted. If we are clothing merchants and I ‘arry over too large a stock of winter clothing into late spring, I may order a cold wave to help me reduce my stock. But you may have exhausted your winter stock and wish to have warm weather to start ygur summer stock. My cold wave affects your trade seriously ; I may be sued for damages. Such a state of things is said to have actually happened in Kansas, where a rain maker was refused payment by his employer because of failure of con- tract, and was sued by a neighbor of the employer because his crops were washed out of the ground. Should the weather maker prosper he will often find himself very much embarrassed until our law makers have caught up with our advance in the arts, and the volume of the statute books has been materially enlarged. RAIN MAKING. We come now to the subject of rain making, which has at- tracted more attention, been more tried, and has more history than any other one method of weather making. It has attained the dignity of at least two patents and two congressional appro- priations. A bibliography of the subject is appended, contain- ing 64 titles, two of which refer to books devoted to this subject, respectively by Power and Gathman. First Method.—To clear the way for the American history we may note here as method number one a French method reported in the Comptes Rendus for October 23, 1895. M Baudouin sent a note to the French Academy of Sciences in which he wrote that in Algeria, earlier in that year, he used a kite to obtain electric connection with a cloud at the height of about 4,000 feet. As soon as this connection was made a few drops of rain fell and a local fog formed. These disappeared on breaking the connection, presumably by withdrawing the kite from the cloud. M Baudouin had obtained some rain in Algeria in 1876 by the same method. I know of no other experiments in this direction, nor do they involve anything in opposition to knowledge already -aequired. It is a fair field for experiment, and it is remarkable that M Baudouin’s experiments have not attracted more atten- tion in the United States. Rain making by Fires. 49 Second Method—A second proposed method of obtaining rain is by means of great fires. With this proposal the name of a Penn- sylvania meteorologist, James P. Espy, is inseparably connected. In 1841 he published a “ Philosophy of Storms,” in which he en- larged on this idea previously propounded by him in occasional articles dating from 1838. The idea was not new, for Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary in South America, in his “ Account of the Abipones” (first published in 1784), says that these Indians produce rain by setting fire to the plains. Indeed the idea has been and is generally entertained and in the west has ecrystal- lized into the weather proverb, “A very large prairie fire will cause rain.” To show something of the character of testimony on which Espy relied we shall quote the story of George Mackay as given in a letter to Espy and printed by him in his * Fourth Meteorological Report” (pages 32-34). Mr Mackay says: In 1845 I was engaged in the public survey on the Atlantic coast of Florida. Some time in April (the time of the dry season there, which lasts up to June) I was running a township line between latitudes 26° and 27°, about five miles from the sea. The weather was oppressively warm that day. There was not air enough stirring to move an aspen leaf. We found our line must pass through a saw-grass pond, containing about five hundred acres. In ponds of this destription the green grass at the top shoots up from five to six feet in height, and when the region has not been for some years swept clear by fires the dead and dry growths of preceding seasons accumulate under the latest growth, and are often found there from two to four feet in depth. They are exceedingly in- flammable. When lighted in dry weather they burn with frightfal rapidity and violence. Whenever, in our explorations, we came upon a place of this description we could only pass our line by cutting away the lofty fresh grass and wading (or rather wallowing) through the mud and the under rubbish. On the day in question we determined, as it was so hot, that, to save ourselves trouble, we would burn our way through. I had then no thought of your theory. In order to prevent the flames from running over the woods, through which we were obliged to pass, we communicated them at once to both sides of the spot we desired to open, that they might converge and combine in its center and not scatter later- aly. Ina very few minutes an awful blaze swept over the entire sur- face which we had marked out for our purpose. We then crossed our line. Ere we had proceeded over forty chains a delightful breeze sprang up and cooled the atmosphere, and presently a refreshing shower sparkled in the bright rays of the sun. All this excited no further observation than that it had not rained there before for a long time. I myself did not observe any smoke’nor the formation of any cloud. Our work went on for some days without a repetition of our short cut at pioneering, some objection having been made when another burning 50 M. W. Harrington — Weather making. was proposed, because the first one had rendered it difficult, after crossing the lines, to distinguish the white men from the negroes At length, however, the pleasant breezes ceased, which had made the weather for a while endurable, and the still air and intense heat returned, and with them constant murmurs from the men, especially the negroes, whose duty it was to cut lines and mark trees. We were now on the confines of a saw-grass pond, and a much more formidable one than any we had yet encountered. Being surrounded by a cypress swamp, we concluded that it had never yet been burned. My assistant, Captain Alexander Mackay, who was standing by my side, mentioned his having, in our late con- flagration, observed the formation ofa cloud at the apex of the smoke. He added that it had frequently since brought to his mind some account which he had read of Professor’s Espy’s theory. He suggested that there could not be a better opportunity than this to put the theory to the test, and, being fond of a joke, he said he would like to astonish the supersti- tious negroes and to make them believe that he could call together the clouds and bring down rain. So we determined to make the experiment. When our party were all gathered at the halting place complaints of the extreme heat went round and all unanimously agreed that a more confined and oppressive day had never been known to them. To these complaints the usual wishes for ‘‘a little breath of air” and ‘‘a few drops of rain” succeeded. ‘‘Cut through this pond,” exclaimed the captain, ‘‘and I will bring you more than a few drops of rain; I'll give you a plentiful shower and a breeze, too, that shall wake you up. Come, boys, cut away, and when you’ve done you shall wash off the dust in a cold bath from the skies!’’ They stared up and around; not a cloud as large as a man’s hand was to be seen, and they looked back at the captain with a good-natured grin of incredulity. ‘‘Ho, ho! ha, ha! Captain make cloud out 0’ nuffin’; he, he! Captain bring water all dis way from de sea? Ho, ho! ha, ha! he, he!” Whereupon the Captain affected to be very indignant. To hasten his victory I ordered the grass to be set on fire. The flames soared forthwith above the tallest trees; a dense vol- ume of smoke mounted upward spirally; the grass soon disappeared; we crossed over. As the smoky column broke and the cloud began to form the Captain traced a large circle in the-sand around him, and placed him- self in its center, making fantastic figutes and forming cabalistic phrases out of broken French. Still was the cloud unnoticed. All eyes were riveted upon the Captain, who stood gazing at the earth and shaping outlines of devils there. At this juncture came a roll of distant thunder. Every glance instantly turned upward; a cloud was spreading there; the thunders increased ; the lightnings flashed more vividly; the knees of the negroes shook together with alarm. Already was the rain descend- ing, and in torrents, though the clear sky could be seen in all directions under the cloud. The Captain meanwhile maintained his mystical atti- tude and continued his wild and extraordinary evolutions. Some of the whites, who were in the secret of the hoax, fell upon their knees, and were imitated by the negroes, whose fears augmenting as the storm grew fiercer, with clasped hands, fastened upon the Captain a stare of 4 Espey’s Plan. 51 awe and deprecation. In short, the scene presented a more complete triumph of philosophy over ignorance than I could have supposed it possible to have been produced anywhere in the nineteenth century, and most especially anywhere in our enlightened Republic. We often fired the saw-grass marshes afterward; and whenever there Was no wind stirring, we were sure to get a shower; and I say with per- fect confidence that we never had a shower in April or May at any other time. Sometimes when there was a breeze, it would carry the smoke toward the horizon, where there would seem to be a fall of rain. Kspy dwelt on this theory with great devotion, and in 1845 published a special letter addressed “To the Frtends of Science ” in which he proposed a plan for practical rain production. As the paper in question is now very rare and _ his plan possesses some features of interest, I quote it here : Let masses of timber to the amount of forty acres for every twenty miles be prepared and fired simultaneously every seven days in the summer, on the west of the United States, in a line of six or seven hun- dred miles long from north to south; then the following results seem highly probable, but not certain until the experiment is made: A rain of great length north and south will commence near or on the line of fires; this rain will travel eastward; it will not break up till it reaches far into the Atlantic ocean ; it will rain over the whole country east of the place of beginning; it will rain only a short time in any one place; it will not rain again until the next seventh day; it will rain enough and not too much in any one place; it will not be attended with violent wind, neither on land nor on the Atlantic ocean; there will be no hail nor tor- nadoes at the time of the general rain nor intermediate ; there will be no destructive floods, nor will the waters ever become very low ; there will be no more oppressive heats nor injurious colds; the farmers and mariners will always know before the rains when they will commence and when they will terminate; all epidemic diseases originating from floods and subsequent droughts will cease ; the proceeds of agriculture will be greatly increased, and the health and happiness of the citizens will be much promoted. These, I say, are the probable—not certain—results of the plan proposed—a plan which could be carried into operation for a sum which would not amount to half a cent a year to each individual in the United States ; a plan which, if successful, would benefit in a high degree not merely the landsman, but every mariner that plies the Atlantic. If this scheme should appear too gigantic to commence with, let the trial be first made along the Alleghany mountains; and let forty acres of four ten-acre lots be fired every seven days through the summer in each of the counties of McKean, Clearfield, Cambria, and Somerset, in Pennsyl- vania; Alleghany, in Maryland ; and Hardy, Pendleton, Bath, Alleghany, and Montgomery, in Virginia. The ten-acre lots should be, as nearly as conyenient, from one to four miles apart, in the form of a square, so that 8—Nart. Grog. Maa., vor. VI, 1894. 7 FO 52 M. W. Harrington— Weather making. the up-moving column of air which shall be formed over them may haye a wide base, and thus may ascend to a considerable height before it may be leaned out of the perpendicular by any wind which may exist at the time. Espy's theory was practically the modern convective theory of storms, and to this most worthy student of science is due the credit of calling effective attention to the part which the con- densation of aqueous vapor plays in the mechanism of storms. Third Method.—Another proposed method of making rain arti- ficially is that of L. Gathman, of Chicago, patented in 1891 (number 462,795). His method is to “Suddenly chill the atmos- phere by rapid evaporation, and it is also advisable to produce a heavy concussion in connection with the cooling in order to set the different air-currents in motion. It is obvious that sud- den and rapid evaporation in the upper regions of the atmos- phere could be accomplished in various ways by the evapora- tion of various highly compressed gases; but the evaporation consequent upon the release of liquefied carbonic acid gas is thought to be the most efficient.” He proceeds: In accordance, therefore, with my invention, liquefied carbonic acid gas is liberated in the upper regions of the atmosphere and will, of course, instantly evaporate and spread out in a sheet of vapor of an extremely low temperature and produce a cloud. The surrounding atmosphere will be chilled by its proximity to the cold vapor and the moisture in the atmosphere will be condensed thereby. The condensation takes place in large quantities and with great rapidity, so that a cloud is formed that will precipitate a rainfall upon the earth. The liquefied carbonic acid gas can be confined in a suitable shell or casing, said casing also to contain an explosive—gunpowder, dynamite, etc—which is thrown or shot into the upper regions of the atmosphere and there exploded by a time-fuse. A balloon, moreover, could be em- ployed to elevate the shell or casing containing the liquefied carbonic acid gas, and the explosion to liberate the gas could be made by an elee- tric current controlled by persons upon the earth. Mr Gathman also published a little book in which were re- produced, with approval, Professor Newcombh’s article entitled, “Can We Make it Rain?” and Professor Houston’s “ Artificial Rain-making.” In this book we learn that Mr Gathman has been occupied with the use of condensed carbon anhydride to cool heavy guns, and was led to his theory by the results of his experiments with ordnance. He also experimented on his method of rain-making, and says (page 38) : > =" Gathman’s Plan. bo In making some experiments last year, a shell filled with liquefied car- bonie acid gas was exploded at a height of 600 feet; a cloud was produced in the clear sky at once, and, floating along on a current of air, was visible for miles. This experiment was made in July, 1890, and since that time I have made sufficient other experiments to satisfy myself that I can pro- duce rain whenever necessary, or at will. Experiments made in my astronomical observatory, at a height of only seventy-five feet, have provén that by the evaporation of liquefied carbonic acid gas a rain shower on a small scale can be produced with but a small quantity of the gas. When completed arrangements have been made, the experiments mentioned will be seen to be but a step to the practical illustration on a grand scale. It appears that in Gathman’s method the explosion plays a very subordinate part; but in the method to follow the explo- sion is the main, if not the only thing. Fourth Method.—The concussion theory is probably an old one, though it is not correct to refer it to Plutarch, as is sometimes done. In his life of Marius, referring to the battle with the Teutons near Aix, in July, 102 B. C., Plutarch says: “ Extra- ordinary rains pretty generally fall after great battles; whether it be that some divine power thus washes and cleanses the pol- luted earth with showers from above, or that moist and heavy evaporations steaming forth from the blood and corruption thicken the air, which naturally is subject to alteration from the smallest causes.”* Here are two distinct suggestions for rain- making, but not that of concussion. The first elaborate treatment of the concussion theory appears to have been by Edward Powers, civil engineer, who published in 1890 a book on the relations of battles to rainfall, The first edition was printed in Chicago in 1871, but most of the edition was destroyed by the great fire in that city, which also destroyed the stereotype plates. The latest issue seen by me contains an inset of 15 pages devoted to a criticism of Professor Newcomb’s article already mentioned. The aim of this book is to prove that great battles or heavy cannonading are usually soon fol- lowed by rainfall. A fair criticism of the book is that such phenomena are not invariably followed by rain. The coinci- dences could be explained by the fact that in the season of mili- *Plutarch’s Lives, Clough’s revision, Am. Book Exchange edition, 1881, pp. 590-391. 54 M. W. Harrington— Weather making. tary operations rain is usually falling somewhere in eastern United States; that in fact it is not clear but that the rain is a pure coincidence. The argument is not conclusive. Indeed, it is only fair to say that under the conditions involved it could not be made conclusive. Mr Powers, however, did not despond, but used his utmost endeavors to bring the matter toa test. For this purpose he persuaded Senator Farwell, in 1874, to present a petition to Congress asking that the theory be tried. This, with a previous petition to which he refers, seems to have been without response on the part of Congress. Later, and apparently independently, the matter was taken up by General Daniel Ruggles, of Fredericksburg, Virginia, who obtained a patent in 1880 (number 230,067) on making rain by explosions in the clouds. His claim runs: The nature of my invention consists in sending one or more balloons into the cloud-realms, said balloon or balloons carrying torpedoes and cartridges charged with explosives, and there to explode or detonate them by magneto-electric or electric force through metallic wire, textile cordage, or by the fuse, or by mechanical force, in order to precipitate rainfall by concussion or vibration of the atmosphere. General Ruggles succeeded in bringing the matter before Con- egress, but did not succeed in getting an appropriation. His’ plan was much discussed in the newspapers at the time, but . e does not seem to have reached the experimental stage. Senator Farwell, however, continued his interest in the matter, and in 1890 finally succeeded in obtaining an appropriation, first of $2,000, then of $7,000, for carrying on the experiments, some of which he had already had made at his own expense. The appropriation assigned the conduct of the experiments to the Department of Agriculture, and the Secretary selected R. G. Dyrenforth for the work. The experiments were carried on in the vicinity of Washington and in Texas... A report from Mr Dyrenforth was published by Congress in 1892. At the next session of Congress another appropriation of $10,000 was made for this purpose, of which the sum of $4,913.59 was expended, as before, under Dyrenforth’s direction, the remainder having been covered back into the Treasury. Mr Dyrenforth’s methods were highly ingenious. He used a variety of explosives, on the ground and in the air, by great single explosions and by volleys. He introduced many novel- yt The Method of Concussions. 55 ties, among them that of exploding the gas in the balloon itself when high in the air. His conclusions, as stated by himself in his first report, were (page 59) : First. That when a moist cloud is present, which, if undisturbed, would pass away without precipitating its moisture, the jarring of the cloud by concussions will cause the particles of moisture in suspension to agelom- erate and fall in greater or less quantity, according to the degree of moist- ness of the air in and beneath the cloud. Second. That by taking advantage of those periods which frequently occur in droughts, and in most if not in all sections of the United States where precipitation is insufficient for vegetation, and during which at- mospheric conditions favor rainfall, without there being actual rain, pre- cipitation may be caused by concussion. Third. That under the most unfavorable conditions for precipitation, conditions which need never be taken in operations to produce rain, storm conditions may be generated and rain be induced, there being, however, a wasteful expenditure of both time and material in overcoming unfavor- able conditions. His second report has not been published, but I infer that his second series of observations were believed by him to confirm the results of the first. Mr Dyrenforth generally omitted one check which he might well have employed, and which I personally urged him to em- ploy. Experiments of this sort, made in the free air, with the accompanying conditions not under control, should be accom- panied with every possible check ; and one self-evident and very necessary one is the observation of a physicist familiar with the meteorologic side of physics. Such an expert (Mr G. E. Curtis) accompanied the party in its first experiments. His report (ex- cept the bare meteorologic record made during the experiments) does not accompany Dyrenforth’s document. It was presented, however, to the Philosophical Society of Washington, and was printed elsewhere. Mr Curtis says, substantially, that an explo- sion in a cloud brings down a few scattering drops of rain, and this may happen even with an explosion on the ground, if heavy. Otherwise he says there was no rain-making. It is but fair to say that with Mr Dyrenforth’s report are given the reports of his assistants, Mr John T. Ellis, Lieutenant 8. A. Dyer, and Mr Eu- gene Fairchild, and they were stronger in the expression of a belief that rain was successfully made than is Mr Dyrenforth ; and there are also many favorable quotations from spectators. 56 M. W. Harrington— Weather making. Professor A. Macfarlane, of the University of Texas, was pres- ent as an uninvited guest during the elaborate experiments near San Antonio on Friday, November 25, 1892, beginning at 4 pm. Thesky was from time to time overcast, and the natural con- ditions were not unfavorable for rain. Many explosions were made without rain until late in the evening, from which point I will take-up the story in Professor Macfarlane’s own words, as given in a letter to the New York World December 4, 1892: At 10.15 a bailoon was sent up and was lost in the darkness; when it exploded a very large area of light was seen, as if the explosion had oc- curred inside a cloud. There was no fall of rain at the camp, and nobody was stationed below the spot where the balloon exploded. I consider this the only experiment that was worth making, yet no care was taken to observe whether rain did fall. It is conceivable that the ex- plosion of a twelve-foot balloon inside a cloud ready to precipitate may Jar the particles so as to quicken the dropping of the rain. This was the idea of Ruggles. But to test whether some rain can be drawn down in this manner from a rain-cloud does not suit the ideas of cranks who wish to get a large something out of an absolute nothing. At 10.45 a mist became just perceptible. The General issued an order to get ready the rain-gauge. The boys hurried up a balloon, which was nearly ready, but it had no effect on that mist. At 11.40 the mist ceased and the stars appeared in places nearly over- head. The General apparently felt that things were going against him, for he suggested to the Doctor to put a small piece of dynamite in the shells, and also to try the effect of an explosion down at the Springs. At 12.30 a 12-foot balloon went well into the cloud, but no rain effect. At 1 o’clock, the time when operations were to be suspended for the night, it was fair, with some stars visible, and the boys were preparing one more balloon. Colonel King remarked that it would be necessary to keep up the operations for forty-eight hours. I retired to a room in the hotel, from which I could see the operations. At 1.30 I heard a slight shout from the balloon boys, and I could hear the rain pattering on the roof. The General, who had also retired to the hotel, threw open the window and called out : “Hurry up, boys.” After ten minutes the balloon was exploded, and the rain almost imme- diately diminished so as to be scarcely perceptible. When the explo- sion occurred I had my head out of the window. The hotel, a frame house, shook considerably, but there was no breaking of glass or any of the effects produced bya powerful explosion on the solid earth. At 1.50 the General went out to observe, and I heard him say : ‘‘There is a beautiful rain to the north of us and to the west of us.”’ At 2 the rain had entirely ceased, and the last of the operations con- sisted of two shells fired in succession at 2.05. The Test of the Method. 57 Professor Macfarlane is a competent physicist. He was trained in Edinburgh and has, I believe, no such appreciation of humor as to make him unconsciously color his report. His conelu- sions were adverse to the rain makers. Referring in general to the experiments in Texas,one fact has been generally overlooked. The rainfall in western Texas is always small, but it is subject to its maxima and minima, like other regions. Now, there is a rainfall season in July and August in Arizona and New Mexico, and this reaches western Texas. Thirty percent of the annual rainfall descends in these two months along the eastern border of New Mexico and in the western angle of Texas. At El Paso this percentage is forty. This maximum passes gradually eastward and is found in the southeastern part in September. The experiments in the western part of Texas in 1891 were in September, fairly in the time of thismaximum. ‘There is another maximum of rainfall in Texas in November. - This is in the northeastern part of the state. The second series of rainfall experiments in Texas was in November, 1892,at San Antonio. The maximum here occurs in September, but there is in November an average (for 24 years) of 2.5 inches, or one-twelfth of the annual 30.6 inches. There is a high rela- tive probability of rain naturally in September in the region of the experiments in 1891, and there is an even chance of it in the region of 1892. To test the theory of rain-making in Texas the months might have been better chosen. Yet it is but fair to say that the rainfall in western Texas is very fluctuating, as it comes generally in local storms. Fifth Method.—There is another method of rain-making which is still a mystery, but which deserves mention because it has been submitted to actual test. I have not been given permis- sion to use names in this case, and will only guarantee that the letter which I quote came from a high official of a railway com- pany and is worthy of the credence which an official business letter of this sort should carry with it. This gentleman, under date of August 22, 1893, wrote to me as follows: Dear Sir: Your letter, August 10, * * * has been referred to me. In reply thereto, we have no published reports concerning rain-making experiments such as mentioned by you. While these experiments have been made by a couple of employés of this company, we can say but little about them ourselves. These parties claimed to be able to cause rainfall _by“artificial means, and we have furnished them with materials, together 58 M. W. Harrington— Weather making. with transportation facilities, more or less all the time since the early part of May, they having experimented in some eighteen or twenty different locations, and in each case we have had more or less rainfall. In nearly every instance we can but feel there is something in their claim. We have had from one-half to three or three and a half inches falls of rain, covering a section of country from twenty-five to ninety miles in length and ten to thirty miles wide, all owing to the direction of the wind, and in some cases at times when there was no moisture in sight or known until they began operations, and then only throughout the section over which their own rainfall extended. ‘ I presume the operators themselves have kept a record of their work, -and results of same, at each of the different points where they have been located, and should you desire I will have them make a statement show- ing what they themselves feel they have accomplished. We have been slow to believe there was anything in this business, but at the same time must admit that they are either very fortunate in reaching the different points where they have experimented just in time to have rain-storms, or they have certainly hit upon the right thing in the way of rain-making. The process I do not know, but a humorous railway man, personally cognizant of the matter, told me that the operators kept themselves carefully secluded in a freight car with a hole in the roof, and when occasional glimpses were caught of them they seemed to be cooking over a red-hot coal stove. Probably the method employed was that of Frank Melbourne, the Aus- tralian, who has most reputation in the west, and who has care- fully kept his secret. It is proposed by the company in ques- tion to continue the experiments in another field and with competent experts accompanying, and another railroad com- pany is seriously considering the propriety of entering the field. CONCLUSIONS. Finally, permit me to complete this sketch by some remarks ;_ and, to make them as specific as they can be made, permit me to put them in the form of questions and answers. The answers are my own. Question. Will a noise make rain? Answer. No; there is no reason in theory or practice to make us think it will. Q. Will a concussion make rain? lS Drainage of the Sequatchie Anticline.................+.... 104 (2) ertitty Cycles ioe tc ss. Gist bindadeain Sane tortontecene ‘hone sera 105 Hitects of Uiplitton: the: Axis OSPR ars ies ieee he ee eeenee 105 Condition of Drainage prior to the Lafayette Depression. ... 107 Diversion: of the -Ajpalachiana Riviera. woe. mise eee aie eee 109° Evidence from the Coosa-Tennessee Divide..... .......... 109 Evidence from the Volume of Material eroded and deposited. 110 Evidence from the Character of the Gorge below Chattanooga. 112 Conditions immediately preceding the Diversion........... 114 Manner in which the Diversion was accomplished.......... 115 (3) -Bresembtn@yclere.e ii ec iliecelans Rest cual eee od aaeae al ete ae ere are 119 Northward Diversion of the Tennessee ve: Solaire Sees 119 Summary of the Drainage Development and Land Oscillations. . 120 Parr. LDT—Sediumentany Records. sie. ssn tes. < oats an ose ne ea 123 INTRODUCTION. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK. The post-Paleozoic history of the Appalachian province has, until recent years, been known only in the most general terms. That the region has been a land area since the close of Carbon- iferous time was known, and it was assumed that, in common with other land areas, it had been repeatedly elevated and de- pressed, yet the extent and character of these movements, in the interior at least, were not only unknown, but no data were sup- posed to exist by which they could be measured. Along the Researches of McGee and Davis. 65 ’ margin of the province the subsidences are recorded in the sedi- ments deposited as the sea transgressed upon the land, and in some cases the amount of subsequent uplift is indicated by the recession of overlying deposits. In so far as these oscillations have been determined from sedimentary deposits, cach trans- gression of the sea was regarded as marking a continental depres- sion, and each recession a continental uplift. Within the past -few years, however, a complete revolution has been effected in the interpretation of the post-Paleozoic history of this region. Through the work of a few pioneers in this field the number and character of the principal oscillations and their position in geo- logic time are now fairly well known. The first systematic application of the new methods of re- search was made ‘by McGee in the middle Atlantic slope. In 1885, in a paper on the geology of Chesapeake bay,** he pointed out the methods pursued and the importance of utilizing topo- graphic forms resulting from degradation, as well as the comple- mentary sedimentary deposits in interpreting geologic history. In 1888 + he more definitely correlated the principal oscillations with the sedimentary deposits, thus fixing their position in geo- logic time, and in a subsequent paper { he made the very impor- tant generalizations that all elevations have been accompanied by seaward tilting of the land, and that along certain axes the oscillations have reached a maximum amount, while along others both elevation and depression have been at a minimum. Davis§ published the results of his studies on the geomor- phology of the middle and north Atlantic slope shortly after the * The Geology of the Head of Chesapeake Bay, by W J McGee: Seventh Annual Report U. 8. Geological Survey, 1888, pp. 545-646. + Three Formations of the middle Atlantic Slope, by W J McGee: Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxxv, 1888. {The Lafayette Formation, by W J McGee: Twelfth Annual Report U.S. Geological Survey, 1891, pp. 353-528. Geology of Washington and Vicinity, by W J McGee: Compte Rendu de la Congrés Géologique International, 5th Session, Washington, 1891, pp. 219-251. 2 The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, by W. M. Davis: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. i, 1889, pp. 183-253. The geographic Development of northern New Jersey, by W. M. Davis and J. W. Wood: Proc. Boston. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxiv, 1889, pp. 365-423. The Rivers of northern New Jersey, by W. M. Davis: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. ii, 1890, pp. 81-110. 66 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. appearance of the first two papers above cited. He has carried his observations somewhat further toward the interior and de- scribes two well marked baselevel peneplains in eastern Penn- sylvania, New Jersey and portions of New England, the formation of which, he ascribes to long continued erosion in Cretaceous and Tertiary time. A general seaward tilting of the peneplain is described, but no attempt is made to locate the axes of their deformations. In 1890 Davis published a more comprehensive paper,} bringing in review all previous publications on the base- levels of the Atlantic slope and discussing the probable continua- tion of the peneplains, found in the northern portion southwest- ward over the whole of the Appalachian province. Thus the broad outlines and to some extent the details of post- Paleozoic history of the Atlantic slope and Mississippi embay- ment have been determined, but for most of the interior the details are still wanting. The present paper is an attempt to supply in some measure this deficiency. THE PROVINCE DEFINED. For present purposes the southern Appalachian province is regarded as embracing the region south of the Ohio and Potomac rivers and limited toward the east, south, and west by the Cre- taceous and the later formations of the coastal plain and Missis- sippi embayment. One or both of the present writers are per- sonally familiar with the greater part of this region, and many observations made in connection with the work of the Appa- lachian division of the United States Geological Survey are here for the first time brought together. The location of the region is exceptionally favorable for the study of its geomorphology. Surrounded on three sides by Mesozoic and later deposits, the relations of land and water which prevailed during post-Paleozoic time are fairly well determined. The character of the sediments serves to establish correlations between them and their corre- sponding erosion features. The intersection of erosion planes with deposits of known age serves to fix the date of each erosion period within narrow limits. Finally, the absence of glaciation and glacial deposits renders the interpretation of topographic forms and of drainage systems much easier than in regions +The geologic Dates of Origin of certain topographic Forms on the Atlantic Slope of the United States, by W. M. Davis: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. ii, 1890, pp. 545-581. Baselevel of Erosion. 6 ~I where glaciation has interfered with their normal development or masked their completed form. THE PROBLEMS AND THE DATA. Since the southern Appalachian province, as above defined, has stood above sealevel throughout the whole of the period whose history is under consideration, that history must be read in the topographic forms developed during the process of sub- aerial degradation and in the adjustments of drainage to chang- ing conditions. The fundamental conception, in the interpretation of the his- tory of a region from its topographic forms, is the baselevel of erosion. The formation of a general baselevel peneplain implies the long continuance of certain well defined conditions, so that wherever the presence of such a peneplain can be established the former existence of these conditions may be safely inferred ; also it can be formed only near sealevel; hence by contouring the present remnants of a baselevel peneplain the contour at any point represents very nearly the algebraic sum of all changes in altitude which that portion of the plain has suffered. In the southern Appalachian province the more or less per- fectly preserved remnants of two baselevel peneplains have been mapped and their deformations represented by contours; the conditions implied by these baselevels have been inferred ; their probable correlations with the contemporaneous sedimentary deposits indicated ; and finally the development of the drainage has been traced through a complex series of adjustments upon the repeatedly deformed surface to its present mature location. Parr J—PuystocrRapuic DEVELOPMENT. CLASSIFICATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES IN THE PROVINCE. The southern Appalachian province has certain topographic features common throughout its entire extent. They are so modified by local conditions that their identity in different por- _ tions of the province would scarcely be recognized by the casual | observer, but to the student of geomorphology they stand out as __ the most prominent feature of the landscape and he reads from them many chapters in the history of the province during post- | Paleozoic time. With our present information we are able to | classify these topographic forms and to trace with considerable | | 68 Hayes and Campbell— Appalachian Geomorpholog y. certainty the more prominent features over the greater portion of the province. In. some portions lack of data prevents the identification and correlation of these forms, but it is probable that further study will show the same features there as in the better known regions. The identity and practical continuity of certain topographic forms have been clearly proven through the major portion of the southern Appalachian province, and by other writers across Pennsylvania, New Jersey and the greater por- tion of New England, so that the conditions and agencies which produced them ane have prevailed uniformly over wide areas. In addition to these principal topographic forms, there are many minor features which doubtless record brief and local conditions, but in most cases the data at hand are not gnats for their de anmatacielem, Inferences from the observed topographic forms back to the conditions under which they were produced necessarily involve elements of uncertainty, and the writers are fully aware that some of their conclusions are open to question and may be mod- ified by further study. The classification of the main topographic features of the province is as follows: 1. Elevations standing above the Cretaceous peneplain. 2. Deformed Cretaceous peneplain. d. Intermediate erosion slopes. . 4. Deformed Tertiary peneplain. 5. Post-Tertiary erosion slopes. Of these five classes the two baselevel peneplains are most important to the student of geomorphology, for they render it possible to interpret the meaning of the other topographie fea- tures and to fix the dates of their origin in geologic time. ™ ELEVATIONS STANDING AS8OVE THE CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN. The oldest topographic forms found in the southern Appa- lachian province are those portions of the land which were not reduced to baselevel during the long period of Cretaceous ero- sion. These summits may possibly mark the position of a still. earlier baselevel peneplain; but if so, the remnants are so few that we are unable to reconstruct the ancient plain. Protected by a favorable location with reference to drainage lines or com- posed of exceptionally durable rocks, they stood during the formation of the Cretaceous peneplain in low relief above the “2 Cretaceous Peneplain. 69 level surface and still remain as isolated peaks, ridges or moun- tain groups above the remnants of that plain. The distribution and relations of these remnants will be more easily understood after the Cretaceous peneplain has been described in detail ; -hence their consideration will be deferred and included under the physiography of the Cretaceous peneplain. DEFORMED CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN. The oldest topographic feature that can be identified with cer- tainty in this region, one which forms the basis upon which all later history has been recorded, is a more or less perfectly pre- served baselevel peneplain. The reasons for ascribing its forma- tion to Cretaceous time are given in a subsequent part of this paper and its Cretaceous age may be assumed for the present. Doubtless, at earlier periods the surface of the province had been baseleveled again and again, but subsequent erosion has so modified these earlier forms as to leave them unrecognizable. Conditions of Development.—The condition under which a plain of erosion will be formed is long-continued stability of baselevel, and as baselevel is usually determined by sealevel, the essential condition is that the relative position of land and sea shall re- main unchanged for a period long enough to allow the agents of erosion to carry their work toward completion and reduce the surface of the land to drainage-level, the baselevel of erosion. During Cretaceous time the condition of stability prevailed in this region for the longest period of which we have any record in its history; for, while it is a popular belief that the normal condition of the earth’s crust is one of stability, the re- verse is. shown to be true of this region. Its history in post- ‘Paleozoic time is a record of almost continuous orogenic move- ment—extremely slow, it is true, but with sufficient time allowed, capable of producing the greatest deformations with which we are acquainted. Throughout this period of exceptional quiet, erosion was in progress, reducing the surface toward baselevel—rapidly at first, as the land was high and the slopes steep, but at a rate growing gradually less and less as the gradient of the streams decreased and with it their ability to carry off the waste of the land. As the gradient approached its lowest limit the mineral matter removed from the land was almost wholly in solution. This process continued, reducing to baselevel first the soft and soluble 70. Hayes and Campheli—Appalachian Geomorphology. rocks, and then, less perfectly, the harder rocks; the degree to which it was carried depending largely upon their location with reference to the margin of the sea or the larger streams. In this manner the greater. portion of the province was reduced to an almost featureless plain. The surface over hard and soft beds alike was smoothed until gentle slopes and low relief replaced the sharp declivities and high elevations which marked the early stages of the process. Following the period of quiescence above described came one of epeirogenic activity, and the process of baseleveling was brought to an end. The land was elevated and the streams began anew the rapid trenching of its surface; but the land was elevated unequally, and as it arose the surface was warped and twisted. Where the elevation was greatest the erosion was most active and quickly destroyed the symmetry of the surface, in some places producing a deeply cut mountain region, the summits alone marking the position of the former peneplain ; where the elevation was slight the surface remained practically unchanged ; andall gradations exist between these extremes—on the onehand, where the peneplain is wholly destroyed, and on the other, where it is perfectly preserved. Although the whole province, as stated above, had been re- duced to an almost featureless plain, the character of the under- lying rocks modified to a very slight extent the character of that plain. The soft rocks were somewhat more perfectly reduced than the hard rocks. Still the differences were not strongly marked. When, however, the nearly perfect plain was elevated and the activity of the streams was revived, differences in the underlying rocks became all important in determining the degree to which the plain would be preserved. Where the rocks were soft it was rapidly destroyed, and where they were hard it has retained in large measure its original form. Hence the peneplain, although originally quite uniform, now shows great diversity and presents several distinct types, depending jointly on the amount of elevation and the character of the underlying rocks. Western marginal Type:—In general around the margin of the province this peneplain has been almost entirely obliterated by later erosion. Especially is this true in central Tennessee and Kentucky, where limestone occupied the baseleveled surface or lay beneath a thin capping of sandstone. When erosion was revived upon the peneplain by its elevation the streams quickly Types of the Cretaceous Peneplain. 71 sank their channels to the second baselevel and almost com- pletely removed the intervening portions. Hence there are only a few widely separated outliers of the Cumberland plateau whose summits still mark the surface of the peneplain. One of the most typical of these outliers is Short mountain, in central Tennessee, which rises 1,000 feet above the surrounding level plain. It has about the same altitude and is capped by the same hard sandstone as the Cumberland plateau, 20 miles distant. The intervening low plain is underlain by inestane which, on the removal of the sandstone cap, offered comparatively little resistance to degradation, so that only a combination of favorable accidents has preserved this remnant of the old peneplain once continuous over the whole region. Plateau Type.—This is very different from the foregoing, chiefly in the degree and manner of its preservation. In the great Ap- palachian coal basin, south of Cumberland gap, the rocks are cqmparatively undisturbed. Along certain lines narrow anti- clinal folds have developed, leaving broad basins between. The anticlines have been eroded, and the synclinal basins, with their flat lying strata, constitute the mountains or more properly the plateaus of this region. The form of the level topped plateaus has been attributed to the attitude of the strata, especially where the surface is formed by the great Carboniferous conglomerate, as is the case over most of the region; but close study shows that this uniform surface does not always correspond to the geologic structure, but isa more or less perfect plain, regardless of the attitude of the strata. The few low knobs and ridges which rise above this common level are truly monadnocks,* standing out in striking contrast to the uniform surface below. They gen- erally bear no definite relation to the outcrop of the harder beds, but appear to be due rather to the accidents of erosion and remoteness from main drainage lines. These features prevail throughout the coal basin from central Alabama to Kentucky. The plain is well preserved in the southern portion, but becomes more deeply dissected toward the north, until near Cumberland gap there remain only a few narrow remnants of the once con- tinuous surface. The conditions for the study of, this plain are nearly ideal in the plateau region, where it was so perfectly *A term lately used by W. M. Davis to designate those isolated eleva- tions standing above a baseleveled plain as mount Monadnock stands above the surrounding plain. 11—Narv. Geog. Maa., vou. VI, 1894, 72 Hayes and Camphell—Appalachian Geomorphology. formed and so excellently preserved. It can be traced continu- ously from an altitude of 600 feet in central Alabama to 2,000 feet at the Tennessee-Alabama line, and thence holding about the same altitude, with slight irregularities, to Cumberland gap. North of the Kentucky-Tennessee line the identification of this peneplain becomes a much more difficult matter, for elevation has been greater and erosion more rapid. The rocks are gen- erally soft and have been unable to preserve any extent of level surface ; hence the plain is almost wholly destroyed. Neverthe- less, upon careful study of a wide area, it is seen that along north- east-southwest lines there is a marked uniformity in the altitude of the summits, and on transverse lines an extremely regular in- crease in their elevation toward the interior. ‘This gentle but regular slope bears apparently no relation to the structure, and there seems no other explanation but to regard this as an almost completely dissected peneplain whose surface is represented ap- proximately by the summits of the isolated knobs. The alti- tudes of these remnants of the plain vary from 1,300 or 1,400 feet near the mouth of the Big Sandy river to 4,000 feet near the central portion of the Virginia-West Virginia line. Above this inclined peneplain no summits rise until well toward the interior of the region, where their occurrence seems to be due to the same causes which produced monadnocks further southward, viz., un- favorable location with reference to the main drainage lines. This is well exemplified in the Big Black mountain on the state line between Kentucky and Virginia. This irregular mountain mass near Big Stone gap is composed of upper Coal Measures, and has an altitude of 4,100 feet, while Pine mountain, but a few miles northwestward, is finely baseleveled at about 2,500 feet. True, there is a great difference in attitude of the strata in these two mountains, for in Pine mountain the dip is about 30° south- eastward, while in Big Black mountain the rocks are horizontal ; but the former is made up of 1,200 to 1,400 feet of hard con- glomerate, interbedded with shales and sandstones, whilé the latter is composed of the ordinary shales and sandstones of the upper Coal Measures. Apparently Big Black mountain owes its preservation to the presence of Pine mountain on its north- western side, which acted as a barrier against erosion from that direction. Valley Ridge Type.—In the Appalachian valley the type is more uniform throughout the whole extent of the province and con- Variations of Types. 73 sists of the even crested ridges similar to those of Pennsylvania which have been so well described by Dayis.* As a rule the ridges of the southern Appalachian valley are remarkably even crested and are unquestionably the remnants of a plain. In many cases, however, more or less wide variations from the type are found. In some instances a continuous but irregular ridge seems to rise quite above the peneplain, while in others the wind gaps have a constant altitude and probably represent the old baselevel, while the intervening portions of the ridge rising 100 to 300 feet higher stand, now as then, as a series of knobs above the general level. On the other hand, some ridges composed of less resistant rocks or occupying more exposed positions have been so reduced by subsequent erosion that no points along their crests reach the altitude of the peneplain. In reconstruct- ing the peneplain from the valley ridges, careful study is required to determine its true position, and in some regions considerable uncertainty attaches to the determination. On the whole, how- ever, the results obtained from the ridges are surprisingly con- cordant with those obtained in adjacent regions where the plain is better preserved. Smoky Mountain Type.—This type differs altogether from those previously described and consists almost wholly of baseleveled valleys. They prevail from the vicinity of Roanoke, Virginia, to Cartersville, Georgia, giving rise to some prairie-like country in the heart of the Smoky mountains. It was in these valleys that this peneplain was first recognized. Ina paper read before this Society in 1889 Willis described the baseleveled valley of the French Broad river as follows : + A broad amphitheater lies in the heart of the North Carolina moun- tains which form its encircling walls; its length is forty miles from north to south and its width ten to twenty miles. At its southern gate the French Broad river enters; through the northern gate the same river flows out, augmented by the many streams of its extensive watershed. From these water-courses the even arena once arose with gentle slope to the surrounding heights. . . . But that level floor exists no longer. In it the rivers first sunk their channels, their tributaries followed, the gullies by which the waters gathered deepened, and the old plain was thus dissected. It is now only visible from those points of view from * The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, by W. M. Davis: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. i, pp. 183-253. + Round about Asheville, by Bailey Willis: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. i, pp. 291-300. 74. Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. which remnants of its surface fall into a common plane of vision. This is the case whenever the observer stands upon the level of the old arena. He may then sweep with a glance the profile of a geographic condition which has long since passed away. Again, in speaking of its altitude and probable origin, he says: * We have recognized that dissected plain, the level of the Asheville amphitheater, now 2,400 feet above the sea. It was a surface produced by subaérial erosion, and as such it is evidence of the fact that the French Broad river and such of its tributaries as drain this area at one time com- pleted their work upon it, reached a baselevel. This baseleveled condition, as described by Willis on the French Broad, has been found to characterize nearly all the river valleys of the Great Smoky mountains and has been observed by the present writers on the Little Tennessee, Hiwassee and Ocoee rivers of the Tennessee system and on the Coosawattee and Etowah rivers of the Alabama system. The altitudes of the baseleveled valleys vary considerably, but on the whole show a gradual descent southwestward. Thus the altitude of the peneplain is 2,400 feet at Asheville, 2,200 feet on the Little Tennessee, 2,000 feet on the Hiwassee, 1,900 on the Ocoee and 1,600 feet on the Coosawattee. The proportion of the surface which was reduced to baselevel also increases southwestward and in northern Georgia, in place of the baseleveled mountain valleys, most of the surface was reduced and adjacent river basins merge with low divides. Thus the upper basin of the Coosawat- tee and Etowah present to the eye the characteristic form of broad undulating plains partly enclosed by mountains and from which rise the gentle slopes of island-like monadnocks. In detail these plains are found to be deeply etched by the present streams, which flow in narrow recently-cut gorges several hun- dred feet below their general level. On the Etowah river and southward this enclosed valley type disappears and the pene- plain assumes a different form, which will be described later. Blue Ridge Type.—The writers are less familiar with the region northward from the French Broad river and the data for recon- structing the Cretaceous peneplain are less abundant. The topographic maps, however, show quite strong evidence of the existence of this peneplain in the region in question, though it “Op: (elt. ou 297. waa? ae eee eS i, ] \ The Peneplain in Virginia. 7) is not so well marked as about Asheville. Considerable study has been given to the region just north of this province by Davis, who suggests in the paper above cited* the probability of the extension of the Cretaceous peneplain over the entire southern Appalachians. Though he makes no definite statements as to its elevation and attitude, yet he concludes that the summits of the Blue ridge, south of the Pennsylvania line, probably repre- sent this baselevel. The present writers have searched quite carefully for definite evidence as to the existence of the pene- plain in this region and so far have been unable to find any- thing entirely satisfactory. That the region in question was baseleveled is conceded by all who are familiar with its topog- raphy, but the present elevation and attitude of the peneplain are less certain. Southeast of the Blue ridge there are a few outliers or isolated knobs standing above the Tertiary plain, and these show a uniform altitude of about 1,000 feet. It seems scarcely possible that these outliers should have been reduced to so nearly a common level unless that level were the baselevel of erosion. Immediately north of the Blue ridge, the Massannutten mountain shows traces of baseleveling at alti- tudes varying from 2,400 to 2,500 feet, and the valley ridges to the northward probably show traces at still greater altitudes. The Blue ridge varies greatly in altitude; its crest rises toward the south from 1,200 feet at Harpers Ferry to 4,000 feet at the Peakes of Otter, in central Virginia, and toward the north to 2,300 feet on the Maryland-Pennsylvania line. If there were a corresponding gradient in the peneplain it would necessitate a deformation along a cross-axis, of which there is no trace further westward ; also the crest line of the Blue ridge between the points mentioned is extremely irregular and bears no resemblance to the remnant of a baseleveled plain. The varying elevations of the plain, determined on either side of the Blue ridge, agree with certain features of the ridge itself and make it decidedly probable that the peneplain here is highly tilted eastward; the strike of the plain—i. e., the direction of the contours representing the restored surface—crosses the ridge at a low angle instead of being parallel with it. The result of these complex conditions is that no two remnants of the old plain are found along the trend of the ridge at the same altitude. and consequently they are extremely difficult to recognize. Assuming this attitude of the peneplain * Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. ii, 1891, p. 562. 76 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. as a working hypothesis, traces of a baselevel can be found in places that otherwise afford no evidence of its existence; a terrace cut here and a wind-gap there serve to locate the plain so that it can be restored and contoured with consider- able confidence. The restored surface corresponds with the summits of the ridges at Harpers Ferry, where proximity to the Potomac insured complete reduction to baselevel and afforded opportunity for subsequent erosion to almost completely dissect the plain. On either side, away from the river, the crests become more irregular, and evidently stand above the peneplain, while the present wind-gaps show traces of baseleveling, and probably correspond in altitude very nearly with the plain. On the east- ern side of the Blue ridge throughout North Carolina there is but little data available for reconstructing the Cretaceous pene- plain. The present writers are personally unacquainted with the region and a large part of it has never been mapped with contours. At only one point has the phenomenon of baselevel- ing been recognized. Kerr has described certain topographic features observed in the vicinity of Morganton, North Carolina,* and likened them to the Asheville baselevel. His theory as to their glacial origin cannot be accepted, but from his description it may be inferred that the valley of the Catawba river has been baseleveled to about the same extent as the French Broad at Asheville, and that the plain has been nearly as well preserved. Its altitude here is 1,400 feet, so that it mu&t have a very rapid ascent toward the west in order to reach an altitude of 2,400 or 2,500 feet at Asheville, which is only fifty miles distant. This sharp ascent of the Cretaceous peneplain on the eastern slope of the Blue ridge dies out rapidly southward, partly through the flattening out of the fold in that direction and partly through the influence of a cross-axis of depression in the vicinity of Atlanta. Southern marginal Type.—In the region southwest from Atlanta as far as the Coosa river the present attitude of the peneplain differs from that in any other portion of the province. In this region the baseleveled plain has suffered but little uplift from the position in which it, was formed, and this slight- elevation has taken place in very recent geologic time. Hence the pene- plain is well preserved and many of the present streams, as the * Origin of new Points in the Topography of North Carolina, by W. C. Kerr: Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. xxi, 1881, pp. 216-219. a .* t The Peneplain in Georgia. 77 Tallapoosa and its tributaries, are flowing partly on this old surface and partly in channels which they have been able to sink but a short distance below it, although it now stands from 1,000 to 1,400 feet above sealevel. In northern Georgia it merges into the Smoky mountain type, differing from the latter in the greater perfection to which the baseleveling process was carried and in the more perfect preservation from subsequent erosion. This peneplain is well preserved in Dug Down mountain, south of Rockmart, Georgia, and it is from this plain that the historic knobs of Kennesaw and Stone mountain stand up so promi- nently. When the peneplain was formed it must have extended to the margin of the Cretaceous sea which at that time bounded the province on three sides; but it is this marginal portion which was subjected to the greatest erosion, so that wherever any con- siderable elevation took place the peneplain has been wholly destroyed. Hence there is a narrow belt within which no data are available for reconstructing the peneplain, except by in- terpolation from the approximately known position of the sea margin and the remnants of the surface still to be found at ereater or less distances therefrom. These distances are not usually so great as to cause much uncertainty in determining the position of the peneplain at any point. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN. The existing remnants of the Cretaceous peneplain having been described in some detail, a fairly complete view may be gained of its physiography at the close of the long period of quiescence during which it was formed. Although this is the most perfectly baseleveled plain ever developed in the province, and although it was exceptional for its extent and regularity, it did not have a perfectly horizontal surface; in fact, it was level only where erosion acted under the most favorable conditions, either near sea margin and along the largest streams or where the rocks were easily removed by solution. Where soft and hard rocks alternated, the former were quickly reduced, while the latter re- mained above baselevel for longer or shorter periods, according as they were more or less remote from the main drainage lines. Where the location was most favorable for erosion, hard and soft rocks alike were perfectly reduced, and the rivers wandered in sinuous courses and with sluggish currents, uninfluenced by the 78 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. character or attitude of the underlying strata. That this was rather the exceptional case, however, is inferred from the infre- quence of superimposed drainage which can be attributed di- rectly to baselevel wanderings. Probably the outcrops of many if not most of the hard beds appeared embossed in low relief upon the baseleveled plain. The distribution of the unreduced areas, so far as they can be determined at the present time, is shown in plate 5. It will be seen that these areas coincide in position with the present mountain regions. Doubtless many points which then stood slightly above the peneplain have been so reduced by subsequent erosion that their summits no longer rise above its general level. Western North Carolina as early as Cretaceous time was the culminating point of the Appalachian highlands, a position which it has held unterruptedly from that time to the present. At the close of the period of baseleveling the mountains here stood at altitudes varying from 3,000 to 3,600 feet above sealevel, and in some portions of the region they have changed in appearance but little from that time to this. Thus, in the Asheville region there was then a broad, level valley, over whose surface the streams meandered in winding courses. En- circling the valley were the same mountains as today with almost the same contours. The chief difference is in the altitude of the baseleveled valley, which then stood near sealevel, but now has an elevation of 2,400 feet, and in the deep gorges which the present streams have etched below its surface. The present line of the Blue ridge in Virginia was marked by a series of monad- nocks, isolated or in groups, but not comparable in extent with the mountain mass toward the southwest. In the region of the Cumberland mountains, across the Appa- lachian valley from the Great Smokies, the map shows some areas not reduced to baselevel. ‘These formed a group of monad- nocks the highest of which, the Big Black mountains, did not much exceed 1,500 feet in altitude. They are composed of rocks not specially obdurate and, as suggested above, probably owe their preservation from erosion to the surrounding barrier formed by the great Carboniferous conglomerate, and also to their posi- tion in the interior, away from the main drainage lines. In the valley region where the rocks are highly tilted and present sharp ¢ontrasts in capacity for resisting erosion, many short ridges or linear monadnocks stood from 100 to 1,000 feet above the baselevel. These form the higher portions of many Nature of the Deformation. 79 of the present valley ridges, while the present wind-gaps repre- sent the former baseleveled intervals between the monadnocks. In the plateau rezion south of the Crab Orchard mountains no areas of sufficient extent to be represented on the map remained unreduced. The peneplain in this portion of the province was less perfect than in some others and occasional slight elevations remain clearly above its general level. These are sometimes due to the attitude of unusually resistant beds, but more often to the accidents of erosion acting on tolerably homogeneous material. DEFORMATION OF THE CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN. One of the most important conclusions contained in the pres- ent paper, in its bearings upon geomorphology, is the recognition of the nature of the deformation found recorded in the present attitude of the baselevel peneplains. It is that these ‘deforma- tions have been mainly produced by true orogenic movements affecting comparatively narrow areas along certain well defined axes ; that they were not epcirogenic or continental uplifts such as would preserve a peneplain in approximately its original hori- zontal position ; nor even, as suggested by Willis,* uplifts which broadly arched the surface across the whole expanse of the pro- vince; also that orogenic activity has not been continuous along any one axis nor always in the same direction, though the total effect of the intermittent motion has been to elevate the whole province. Deformations of the baselevel peneplains have been recognized in this and adjacent regions by other writers, especially Davis and McGee. Thus Davis has shown that the Cretaceous pene- plain in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and portions of New England is tilted seaward, but he has not located its axis of elevation ; also McGee has shown that in the southern Appalachians every subsidence has been greatest at the sea margin and every eleva- tion greatest in the interior, which implies a cumulative seaward tilting. The class of facts from which he derived his evidence did not enable him to locate the main axes of uplift, though he clearly recognized the transverse Memphis-Charleston axis, which will be more fully described on a subsequent page. * Topography and Structure of the Bays Mountains, Tennessee, by Bailey Willis: School of Mines Quarterly, vol. viii, 1887, p. 252. 12—Nar. Grog, Maa., von. VI, 184. 80 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. In order to represent in as graphic a manner as possible the present form of this Cretaceous peneplain a contoured map of the deformed surface has been constructed. Upon this map are assembled all available data derived from a careful comparison of the various known remnants of the plain within the province. The result appears as plate 5, and although regarded by the writers as preliminary, it embodies all the information at present attainable. Although imperfect, the map is highly suggestive, and it is hoped that it may lead to the construction of similar maps of other regions in which equally important results would ‘undoubtedly be obtained. Different portions of the map repre- sent widely different proportions of fact and hypothesis, and hence differ in value. Thus in the southern part of the province the peneplain, as already described, is well preserved; also the map of this portion is based upon a large number of personal observations and may be considered fairly accurate. In some regions in the northern portion of the province only scanty re- mains of the peneplain can be found, and the evidence of its existence is so indefinite that while the present map is unsatis- factory it is doubtful if anything better can be constructed even with fuller field observations. Other portions are based upon a study of imperfect topographic maps or railroad profiles and verbal descriptions of topography, so that the results are corre- spondingly unsatisfactory. a As already indicated, the deformations of the Cretaceous pene- plain represented by the contour map (plate 5) are not the result of a single elevation or a single system of orogenic movements, but the algebraic sum of all movements both of elevation and depression which have affected the region since the peneplain was formed. Not only have the movements been in opposite directions and at different periods, but the axes of maximum motion have not always been the same nor even parallel; they have intersected at various angles, and the surface has been warped accordingly. The data are not sufficient for mapping all the details and a description of the principal axes only will be attempted. Longitudinal Axes of Elevation.—There are three principal lonei- tudinal axes, and so far as known, these are axes of elevation alone, though depression of which no record is left may have taken place along them also. They are indicated by broken lines on plate 5 and marked by the letters C D, KE Fand G H. —_" =e td | ; 3 Cincimnati-Cape Hatteras Axis. 81 These are lines of maximum elevation and they have had a predominant influence in producing the present topography of . the province. They coincide with the present mountains and in a general way parallel the great structural features of the Appalachian valley. Transverse Axes of Oscillation —In addition to the predominat- ing longitudinal axes a number of interesting transverse axes are brought out by the contours representing the deformed Cre- taceous peneplain? In the central portion of the map the con- tours swell out on either side, giving a broader and more regular profile to the elevation than elsewhere. This is suggestive of a transverse line of uplift intersecting the longitudinal axes nearly at right angles. If this line be prolonged in both directions it is found to connect Cincinnati and cape Hatteras, both of which have been recognized as occupying regions of recent elevation. As early as 1871 Shaler* described a transverse uplift which he concluded had produced the great projection of the coast line at ape Hatteras; also McGee has shown that this axis has been an important factor in determining the form of the coast line during the time represented by the deposition of the coastal plain sediments. He describes itt as “an axis of interruption or change in epeirogenic movement during every geologic period since the Cretaceous.” If this line from cape Hatteras to Cin- cinnati be continued across the Ohio river its direction will be found to coincide with that of the main or northwestward branch of the Cincinnati arch which crosses Indiana to Chicago. A1- though, with the information at present available, it cannot be asserted that motion has taken place along the southeastern por- tion of the line except in post-Cretaceous time, still the coinci- dence of the two axes suggests the probability that there was orogenic movement in the Appalachian region during the uplift of the Cincinnati arch in Ohio and Indiana, and, conversely, that north of the Ohio river may yet be found traces of post-Paleozoic movements corresponding to the later uplifts in the vicinity of cape Hatteras. The probability of such contemporaneous move- ment is increased by the fact that in the southern portion of the province evidence was found by the writers proving that certain * (On the Causes which have led to the Production of cape Hatteras, by Professor N.'S. Shaler: Proe. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xiv, pp. 110-121. +The Lafayette Formation, by W J McGee: 12th Annual Report (We TSt Geological Survey, 1891, p. 403. 82 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. axes of post-Cretaceous oscillation have also been lines of Paleo- zoic movement. A second and more clearly defined axis of elevation, O P, is found crossing the province in the vicinity of Chattanooga. Its trend is nearly due north and south, and it has been traced nearly as far north as Cincinnati. If the axis be continued across the Ohio river it falls in line With the eastern branch of the Cincin- nati arch passing through Findlay and Toledo, Ohio. This also may be only a coincidence, but it strongly suggests genetic con- nection between the portions of the axis north and south of Cincinnati. The third and most prominent of the transverse axes crosses the southern portion of the province, passing near Atlanta and forming a tangent to the great northwestward bend of the Ten- nessee river. It was first recognized by McGee in studying the sediments of the southern Atlantic coastal plain and Mississippi embayment. He describes this ‘ Charleston-Memphis axis” * as an axis of maximum subsidence during both low level periods (represented by the Lafayette and Columbia formations) and an axis of maximum uplift during both high level periods. It is represented on the map by the broken line 4 B, haying a nearly east-and-west direction ; it intersects the last described north- and-south transverse axis as well as the longitudinal axes, and since, as shown by the contours, it is at present a line of depres- sion the effect of the elevation along the other axes is wholly or partially neutralized at their intersections. The oscillations on this axis A B have been an important factor in determin- ine the drainage of this region and will be again referred to in the second part of this paper. The probability of orogenic forces having been active upon the transverse axes during Paleozoic time was mentioned above. In case of the axis A B, there is proof of such activity at two or more distinct epochs. In mapping the Paleozoic formations of northern Georgia and Alabama it was found that two terranes which present strong indications of having been deposited under shore conditions terminate abruptly against this line. These shore formations are the Birmingham breccia at the top of the Knox dolomite and the Oxmoor sandstone occurring in the lower Carboniferous. Other stratigraphic changes scarcely less * The Gulf of Mexico as a Measure of Isostacy (abstract), by W J McGee: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. ili, p. 503. Effect of Elevation. 83 striking mark this as a line of instability during the whole of Paleozoic time and the physiographic evidence shows that the = instability has continued down almost to the present. Hence it eems at least probable that orogenic activity has been persistent , the other axes in pre-Cretaceous or Paleozoic time, and that he forces which produced the Cincinnati arch are the same as those which have deformed the Cretaceous peneplain. Considerable evidence has been collected bearing upon the relative age of the oscillations recorded in the deformed pene- plain, but since it is closely connected with topographic features to be described later its consideration is postponed to a subse- quent page. DEFORMED TERTIARY PENEPLAIN. The long period of quiescence, during which the Cretaceous peneplain was produced, was terminated by a general elevation of the larger part of the province. Like most of the oscillations that _ have occurred since, it was compound in character, combining epeirogenic and orogenic movements; the former affected the entire province, carried the coast line considerably beyond its previous location and stimulated the streams to increased ac- tivity ; but the energies culminated along certain axial lines and resulted in pronounced orogenic uplifts that warped and twisted the surface as it arose. The immediate effect of this elevation was to stimulate erosion, and the streams which for a long period had been carrying only the finest sediments began the rapid corrasion of their channels and quickly trenched the rising land. The process was carried on differently in different parts of the province; where the ele- * vation was slow, erosion was very moderate in its effects, but where elevation was rapid the streams were greatly stimulated and rapidly dissected the peneplain. The movements which inaugurated this cycle still continued to affect the province, not continuously along any one axis, but by intermittent and gradually decreasing elevations and depres- sions. These oscillations were terminated by a second period of quiescence, during which the surface was again reduced to a base- level peneplain. ; The extent of the movements occurring between these two periods of baseleveling can be roughly measured by the vertical 84 Hayes and Campbhell—Appalachian Geomorphology. distance between the two peneplains. The uplift attained its maximum of about 2,600 feet in. northern Virginia and West Virginia, and was apparently continuous from the close of one period of baseleveling to the inauguration of the other. Asa direct consequence of this steady uprising of the land we find in this portion of the province the Cretaceous peneplain almost completely dissected, and it is extremely doubtful if any of the level surface is still preserved. From this maximum the eleva- tion decreased in an irregular manner toward the margin of the province, where the earlier and later baselevels coincide. The period of Cretaceous baseleveling was a very long one—so long that over much of the province the rocks, hard and soft alike, were reduced nearly or quite to the same level. The period of Tertiary baseleveling, on the other hand, was comparatively short when measured by geologic standards. Ifsufficed for the complete removal of the previous peneplain only about the mar- gin of the province, where conditions of erosion were exception- ally favorable, and for the cutting of broad valleys upon the soft rocks of the interior. Since only the softer rocks were reduced to baselevel, there is less diversity in the Tertiary than in the Cretaceous peneplain, but when the surrounding erosion slopes are considered in connection with the plain, as they must neces- sarily be, there is found a great variety of topographic forms, de- pending jointly on the kind of rocks, location with reference to the margin of the sea or large drainage channels, and amount of pre-Tertiary elevation. This peneplain, like the Cretaceous, has been greatly modified by late erosion, but even in this the three elements named above are the controlling ones and mainly re- sponsible for the forms produced. Marginal Types.—In the western portion of the province con- ditions were favorable for the production of an extensive base- level peneplain during this period. The very perfect Cretaceous plain was elevated from a few feet at the margin of the Tertiary sea to about 1,000 feet at the western line of the Cumberland escarpment. The greater part of the rocks thus raised above baselevel were limestones, in which the streams quickly lowered their channels and by lateral corrasion entirely removed the intermediate highlands, with the exception of a few isolated monadnocks, of which Short mountain, already described, is the type. Owing to the coincidence throughout central Tennessee Types of the Tertiary Peneplain. $5 of the Carboniferous limestone and the Tertiary baselevel, this peneplain was formed up to the base of the steep plateau escarp- ment and far within the narrow limestone coves which indent its border. In the time that has elapsed since the formation of this pleneplain the streams have not been able to cut their gorges back to the escarpment, so their head-waters are still flowing upon that old plain, though at an altitude of from 1,000 to 1,100 feet. Thus in a belt of country bordering the plateau on the west and extending northeastward from Huntsville, Alabama, to the Kentucky-Tennessee line the conditions were favorable for the production and have since been favorable for the perserva- tion of this peneplain. Across Kentucky the conditions were similar to those of Ten- nessee, except that the hard Coal Measure sandstones were less elevated and férmed no plateau, and subsequent erosion, as the Ohio river is approached, has been more and more active, until in the immediate vicinity of the river the pleneplain is recognized with difficulty. The conditions north of the Ohio river are at present entirely unknown, and the only suggestion the present writers can offer is that probably the two peneplains gradually approach each other in that direction until they practically coincide. About the southern margin of the province the elevation be- tween the two periods of baseleveling was so slight that the rocks have been practically exposed to: baselevel conditions from nearly the beginning of Cretaceous to Neocene time, and as a result are deeply decayed and but poorly preserve the records of the past. In the Coosa valley the Tertiary peneplain is gener- ally distinguishable, although subsequent erosion has cut deeply into its surface and, owing to the decay of the rocks, has reduced the least resistant members to a still lower baselevel—that at which the present streams of the region are flowing. Continuing eastward, the vertical interval between the Cretaceous and Ter- -tiary baselevels decreases and in the vicinity of Atlanta they practically coincide, so that the recognition of the two peneplains is almost impossible. The streams have not cut below the old peneplains in their upper courses and the tributaries of the Chattahoochee and Tallapoosa rivers still flow upon the surface of the Cretaceous peneplain. On the southeastern margin of the province, throughout the 85 Hayes and Camphell—Appalachian Geomorphology. piedmont plain, the Tertiary peneplain is well develoned and only occasional monadnocks show the position of the Cretaceous plain. Although erystalline rocks are generally regarded as offering great resistance to erosion, they are, under baseleveling conditions, subject to very deep decay and probably at the close of the Cretaceous cycle were softened to a far greater depth than at the present time. As the elevation succeeding the Cretaceous — period of baseleveling was not great, the streams quickly swept away this mantle of residual material down to baselevele Under such conditions the Tertiary peneplain was very perfectly devel- oped throughout the whole of the piedmont plain. The subse-- quent erosion of this peneplain has been comparatively slight and in many parts, especially in the vicinity of the James and Potomac rivers, it is almost perfectly preserved. Interior Valley Type—Asg stated above, this period was not suf- ficiently long for hard rocks to be reduced except under pecu- liarly favorable conditions. In the interior of the province only areas of limestone and shale were lowered to the newly estab- lished baselevel. These-rocks formed the surface chiefly in the zone of folded rocks known as the Appalachian valley. Upon the elevation of the region the streams sank their channels mainly within these belts of easily erodible rocks, although in some cases their wanderings during the preceding period of baseleveling had led them across hard rocks upon which they thus became superimposed. The greatly stimulated erosion rapidly reduced the soft rocks to baselevel in the immediate vicinity of the large streams; the valleys were broadened until checked by hard rocks which remained at the level of the, old peneplain, either as the valley ridges, the plateaus upon the west, or the present mountain valleys upon the east. This removal of the soft rocks progressed well toward the head branches of most of the rivers within the Appalachian yalley. In many cases the divides between adjacent river basins were almost perfectly baseleveled, though in some cases (explained in Part IL of this paper) the present divides were then crossed by large streams whose courses were subsequently changed. The Shenandoah valley may be taken as the type of this portion of the Tertiary peneplain. Its level floor, cut in the soft limestone and shale, is abruptly terminated on either side by steep slopes, composed of more resistant strata. The divide between the Areas unreduced. 87 Shenandoah and James is but little higher or narrower than the valleys themselves. The same’ is true of the divides between the James and Roanoke and the Roanoke and New rivers, and their valleys are almost as perfectly baseleveled as that of the Shenandoah. In the southern portion of the Appalachian val- ley the great Cambro-Silurian limestone becomes very silicious and its surface was less perfectly reduced than in Virginia. Many rounded ridges of residual chert reach slightly above the level ofthe Tertiary peneplain, even in the vicinity of the larger streams. _The amount of the erosion, however, was even greater than on the Shenandoah and James, for the valley in eastern Ten- nessee and northwestern Georgia is considerably wider than in northern Virginia. In the New-Kanawha basin the Tertiary pene- plain was extensively developed ; conditions of erosion appear to have been exceptionally favorable, for not only limestones but considerable areas of sandstone and shales were very completely reduced. Owing to subsequent elevation this Tertiary plain now forms a plateau 2,500 feet above sealevel and the present streams have cut their channels 1,500 feet or more below its surface. The altitude of the peneplain decreases rapidly westward and in the valley of the Ohio corresponds with the highest bluffs, below which the river has sunk its bed from 400 to 700 feet. Plate 6 shows the portions of the surface not reduced to the Tertiary baselevel, and from it more easily than from descrip- tions may be obtained a general idea of the physiography of the Tertiary peneplain at the end of this baseleveling process. These areas are seen to be very extensive on both sides of the Appa- lachian valley, while only the narrow ridges remain within the latter. The area unreduced to baselevel during this period is in round numbers 45,000 square miles, and the ratio of this area to that of the entire province then above sealevel is 1:4.7.. Dur- ing the Cretaceous baseleveling, on the other hand, the unreduced portion is only 8,700 square miles and its ratio to the then exist- ing province 1: 22. A comparison of these ratios affords some idea of the relative duration of the two periods. The reduction of a surface to base- level, however, does not vary directly as the time, but rather as some highly complex function of the time, being a process which decreases in its rate as it approaches completion. Hence the comparative duration of the two periods cannot be determined without considering other factors whose values are at present 13—Nart. Groa. Maa., von. VI, 1894. 88 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. unknown. Nevertheless, itseems probable that the earlier period was at least eight or ten times as long as the later one. DEFORMATION OF THE TERTIARY PENEPLAIN. Although the second peneplain was less perfectly developed than the first, it has been more perfectly preserved, and so can be reconstructed with even greater certainty. The same plan of representation has been pursued as in the case of the Cretaceous peneplain, and the deformed surface is represented by contour lines with an interval of 200 feet; also similar qualifications should be made here as in the case of the map representing the Cretaceous peneplain. Not all parts are equally reliable by reason of differences both in degree of baseleveiing and also in the quality of maps and other data upon which it is based. The deformation is somewhat exaggerated, especially in the interior of the province, for the gradient of the baseleveled valleys has not been taken into account. This gradient varies with the size of the stream, but present knowledge of baselevel conditions is not sufficient to warrant definite statements as to the altitude of the baselevel in the interior. Probably the error in determining the altitude of the peneplain at any point is ereater than the error introduced by neglecting its gradient. The contours in plate 5 represent the algebraic sum of all movements which have affected the province since the comple- tion of the Cretaceous peneplain, while the contours in plate 6 represent movements which have occurred since the close of the Tertiary period of baseleveling; hence the contours of plate 5 represent. all the deformation expressed in plate 6 plus the de- formation occurring between the two periods of quiescence. The amount of this intermediate deformation or the vertical distance between the two baselevels at any point may be found by sub- tracting altitudes indicated by the contours on plate 6 from those on plate 5. The character of the orogenic activity which followed the com- paratively long period of Tertiary quiet is much better known than that which followed the longer. Cretaceous period. It is much nearer the present than the latter, and the evidence for deciphering its history has not yet been obliterated. Part of this evidence consists of modified physiographic forms, but the larger portion is found in the sediments deposited around the seaward margin of the province. We are largely indebted to aid —-- Epetrogenic Movements. 89 McGee for their interpretation and the determination of their bearing on Appalachian history. The conclusions will be stated briefly without attempting to give the evidence on which they are based, although some of it is contained a subsequent page. The series of oscillations occurring since the close of the Ter- tiary period of baseleveling consists, first, of a depression which allowed the waters of the ocean and the Mississippi embayment to advance inward far beyond their previous margin.* Fol- lowing this came an elevation of the entire province that again started the streams in a career of great activity, and the sea re- treated probably beyond the present shoreline. These broad movements may properly be termed epeirogenic, as they affected the entire province, but in every case the movements culminated along certain axial lines and produced decided local or orogenic warping. In the subsidence the greatest depression was along the cross-axis A B, but in the subsequent elevation the greatest movement was along the main longitudinal axes. A period of comparative quiescence followed, during which the land stood somewhat higher than at present and much higher than during the Tertiary baseleveling period. It was during this interval that the rivers of the eastern coast carved their broad outer val- leys, now almost completely submerged beneath the waters of the Atlantic, and the Mississippi corraded its broad valley from Cairo to the Gulf. In very recent geologic time these oscillations have been re- peated in the same order and with a similar effect. The land first subsided and the Columbia sediments were laid down; then it arose to its present position and the modern gorges mark the duration of the present high level attitude of the land. INTERRELATIONS OF THE TWO PENEPLAINS. The greatest divergence in altitude between the two deformed peneplains is in the northern portion of the province. This great pre-Tertiary elevation is somewhat dome-shaped and at- tains its maximum elevation of 2,400 feet about 30 miles north- west of Harrisonburg, Virginia; from this point it descends quite rapidly in all directions, but shows a partial agreement with the axes O Dand E F (plate 5). Toward the west the actual coin- cidence of the two plains cannot be determined, but they appear *The Lafayette Formation, by W J McGee: 12th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1890-’91, pp. 508, 509. 90 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. to be within 200 feet of each other in the vicinity of West Union, forty miles east of Parkersburg, West Virginia. On the eastern margin of the province the upper peneplain is completely oblit- erated, but the two probably coincide in the vicinity of Rich- mond, Virginia. Along the axes the descent was much less rapid. On the Pennsylvania line the uplift probably did not exceed 1,200 feet, while toward the southwest, along the axis EH F (plate 5), it extended certainly as far as the Tennessee line. South of this line the uplifts were much more irregular and dis- tributed over a broader area, so that their general effect has been to produce a broad fold extending from Greenville, South Caro- lina, to Nashville, Tennessee, and with an altitude not exceed- ing 1,000 feet. In this broad uplift can be traced several local orogenic disturbances, of which the uplift along the axis O P is quite prominent, but the greatest elevation occurred along the axis G H (plate 5). Many minor folds both of elevation and depression can be distinguished in this region, but their mean- ing is as yet obscure and we only know that they are intimately associated with the general warping of the surface of the proy- ince. In the vicinity of Atlanta the two baselevels are so near the same altitude that thejr peneplains cannot be discriminated, and the same is true along a line toward the northeast as far as Asheville. In the upper portion of the French Broad basin only one peneplain can be detected and it is ascribed to Cre- taceous time. The streams: have, however, barely sunk their channels through the mantle of disintegrated rock, although the present altitude of the region renders them extremely active. Westward from Asheville the two baselevels diverge under the influence of an uplift along the axis G H and indications of the two corresponding peneplains are found along the lower course of the French Broad river. DISSECTION OF THE TERTIARY PENEPLAIN. By far the larger part of the erosion of the Tertiary pene- plain was accomplished during the period of high level which preceded the Columbia depression, The streams were greatly stimulated, and where the elevation was considerable they carved deep gorges along their lower courses, giving rise to the numerous bays and broad-mouthed rivers now indenting the Atlantic coast. The distance these gorges were cut toward the interior yaries greatly, depending upon the elevation of the land and the char- ‘ ee a = ” , * Hrosion of the Peneplain. 91 acter of the rocks. Where the uplift was considerable the streams cut narrow gorges in their rocky floors, but’ where the elevation was slight the valleys were widened and present more the ap- pearance of corrasion under baseleveling conditions. This broad dissection of the Tertiary peneplain is greatest in the southern portion of the province, for there the elevation was only sufficient for the streams to work upon the decayed rock and residual mantle which had accumuiated during the preced-, ing period. The streams were almost entirely occupied in broad- ening their valleys, so that in the Coosa-Alabama basin probably a third of the surface was removed during this period. After the Columbia depression this region was once more elevated and the streams have deeply trenched their broad valleys. In the vicinity of Chattanooga the Tennessee river has lowered its channel but 250 feet below the Tertiary peneplain, and this has been accomplished gradually, for the contours are generally flowing and well rounded, except where the river cuts some un- usually hard stratum. Throughout the basin of the Tennessee river northeast of Chattanooga the amount of cutting is variable, depending upon the amount of deformation of the peneplain. Streams located upon the axes of maximum elevation were stimulated to a high degree of activity, While those located be- tween such axes in areas of minimum uplift received only a moderate acceleration. The Clinch and Holston rivers show in a striking manner the effect of the warping on the erosion of the peneplain. The upper Clinch is located upon the axis K JL, plate 6,and has cut a canyon from 500 to 700 feet deep through the limestones and calcareous shales, with slopes as steep as such material will stand. In striking contrast with this is the broad open valley of the Holston, located in an area of minimum elevation between the axes K Land M N and about twenty miles southeastward of the Clinch river. The great gorges cut in the Tertiary peneplain in the New- Kanawha basin have been referred to. They indicate clearly that the conditions which prevailed here in post-Tertiary time have been different from those in any other portion of the province. The uplift which elevated the Tertiary peneplain to an altitude of 2,500 feet, as shown in plate 6, was confined almost entirely to the axis K L. This axis crosses the river in its lower course, but the river had sufficient volume to hold its antecedent position across the rising fold. In doing so it has cut a narrow, 92 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. rugged gorge 1,500 feet deep, and is still actively corrading its channel. The movement along the axis must have been practi- cally continuous from the completion of the Tertiary peneplain down to the present. The region northeast of New river, in which rise branches of the Potomac, the James, the Kanawha and the Monongahela, has probably been an area of continuous uplift during every period of orogenic activity affecting the province. The Creta- ceous peneplain, of which only a few doubtful remnants exist, was elevated at least 2,400 feet and -Tertiary erosion was propor- tionally stimulated. It succeeded, however, only in reducing to baselevel and slightly broadening the valleys of the larger streams. A post-Tertiary elevation of 1,600 feet has renewed their activity, so that it has been continued with scarcely a pause from the close of the Cretaceous ‘period down to the present. The result of this almost continuous downward stream cutting has been to produce the most sharply cut region in the Appa- lachian province. The slopes are steep and generally uniform from the highest points, which may represent the surface of the earlier peneplain, down to the present streams, with only an occasional trace of terracing to mark the Tertiary baselevel. The elevation of the Tertiary peneplain along the eastern border of the province has been only moderate, and the streams have accomplished correspondingly little erosion upon its sur- face. The Roanoke, the James and the Potomac have cut rather narrow and shallow valleys across the piedmont plain. These become shallow gorges in the broad baseleveled valleys west of the Blue ridge. RELATIVE DATES OF THE OROGENIC MOVEMENTS. Before closing this portion of the paper it 1s perhaps advisable to review hastily, as far as the evidence will admit, the succes- sion of oscillations in post-Paleozoic time. As already stated, the determination of the character of these movements is one of the most important results derived from this study, since the en- tire physiography of the region, including the arrangement of its drainage systems, has been modified to a great extent by them. Movements in the Tertiary Cycle.—It is not advisable at present to go farther back in geologic time than to the close of the Cre- taceous period of baseleveling, although there are traces of sim- similar movements in the preceding ages of post-Paleozoic time. - ee Dates of Orogenic Movements. 93 In one portion of the province only has the elevation since then been practically continuous. This is in northern Virginia and West Virginia and, as shown in plate 5, exhibits an agere- gate uplift since the completion of the Cretaceous peneplain of 4,000 feet. During the Tertiary baseleveling this region was necessarily free from movement, but at no other time does there seem to have been a complete cessation of the uplift. The axes along which it culminated in pre-Tertiary time are C D and FE F (plate 5). While the movement along these axes occurred syn- chronously and at their maximum reached the same elevation, the deformation on the two was quite different. Along the axis C D it extended but little south of the Kanawha river, while in the opposite direction it passed into Pennsylvania, extending probably half way across that state. Along the axis # F' the elevation reached only a little north of the Potomac, but con- tinued in the other direction as far as Tennessee. These axes - are arranged en echelon and the maximum elevation occurred at. the point of overlap. Some time during this period the uplift extended southwestward along the axis 1 F, but only sufficient to raise a low swell a few hundred feet in altitude. This is quite intimately connected with a later uplift along the same line and ‘probably occurred late in the interval between the two periods of baseleveling. It seems probable that an uplift took place in the Smoky mountain region quite early in this epoch, its axis coinciding approximately with the state line between Tennessee and North Carolina. The reason for assigning this movement to the early part of the epoch is that there are traces of an uplift along this same line in pre-Cretaceous time, and probably the later uplift was but the continuation of the earlier, following immediately the Cretaceous period of quiescence. . This late uplift increased toward the northeast, reaching 1,200 feet on the southern line of Virginia. Some movement occurred along the Hatteras axis during this epoch, reaching its maximum elevation on the northwestern side of the province near the Ohio river. The longitudinal uplift of the Great Smoky mountain region terminated at this transverse line, and their combined forces caused a pronounced dome-shaped elevation in the Cretaceous peneplain. An uplift occurred at the beginning of this epoch along the axis O P, reaching a maximum near Chattanooga, from which it 94 Hayes and Campbhell—Appalachian Geomorphology. descended rapidly toward the south and gradually toward the north. The continuation of the axis O P beyond the Ohio river is quite uncertain, but it probably extended far into Ohio and there may have been within that state a development of the fold similar to the one near Chattanooga. Besides these axes of elevation there are several along which depression occurred during this interval. These depressions were not pronounced, but sufficient to vary the altitude of the Cretaceous peneplain from 109 to 400 feet. One of these is located between and parallel with the axes H Fand G H (plate 5); another is the axis A B, along which some movement occurred at this time; and the third probably connected these, lying east of and parallel with the axis O P. There is no evidence in the physiography of the region to show when these were active, but a careful study of the costal-plain sediments will probably de- termine the question. Movements in the present Cycle—One of the most pronounced movements connected with the close of the Tertiary baseleveling was subsidence along the axis A B (plate 6). This, as described later, occurred during the deposition of the Lafayette formation. After this depression there came a period of apparent quiescence, during which no movement is recorded along this line.. In the time of the Columbia depression this axis was affected in a manner similar to the Lafayette depression. Uplift along the axis K LZ (plate 6) occurred soon after the general elevation of the land following the Lafayette depression. The uplift increased from the Tennessee river in Alabama, reach- ing a maximum of 2,600 feet at the Virginia-West Virginia line south of New river. From this point it gradually decreased northward, passing into Pennsylvania with a probable altitude of 1,500 feet. As before stated, the northern portion of this uplift has been practically continuous, but the southern portion has probably been intermittent in its activity. — ; Early in the present cycle an uplift occurred along the north- ern end of the axis MN, and this seems to have been con- nected with movement along the eastern portion of the Hatteras “axis. According to McGee, the Hatteras axis, from Roanoke to the coast, has been the seat of activity since Eocene time. Its influence is shown on plate 6, in the eastward trend of the axis M N at its northern extremity and the outward swelling of the contour lines. About the middle of the present cycle the uplift Drainage of the Province. 95 extended southwestward along the axis M N,so that in very recent geologic time the Tertiary peneplain from Asheville to Atlanta and southwestward has been elevated to its present position. Movements have occurred along some minor axes chiefly of subsidence, but their exact date cannot be fixed. ‘ The latest movements which can be detected in the province are along the axes K Land OP. That along K L has resulted in a slight ponding of the Tennessee river in the vicinity of Huntsville, Alabama, while the uplift along O P has affected the Cumberland river above point Burnside, Kentucky, in a similar manner. Part II.—DRraAtnaGE DEVELOPMENT. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PROVINCE. Geologically, and topographically as well, the southern Appa- lachian province falls into four well-marked divisions. These are (1) an eastern piedmont plain, sloping gently seaward and composed of metamorphic and crystalline rocks; (2) a montanic tract, embracing the Blue ridge and the Great Smoky range with its many outliers and containing chiefly crystalline rocks with sediments which have undergone various degrees of metamor- phism ; (3) a central broad valley with numerous parallel ridges of Paleozoic sediments ; (4) a western dissected plateau of upper Silurian and Carboniferous rocks. OUTLINE OF THE PRESENT DRAINAGE. In the northern portion of the province the water parting be- tween the Atlantic and Gulf drainage is westward of the Appa- lachian valley. The Potomac heads upon the edge of the plateau and flows eastward across the Appalachian valley, the montanic tract and the piedmont plain. From the western point of Mary- land the divide passes nearly due southward, crossing the Appa- lachian valley diagonally, so that the James and Roanoke drain only the eastern part of the valley, but, like the Potomac, flow east- ward across the montanic tract and the piedmont plain. South of these streams the divide follows near the eastern margin of the montanic tract to its southern extremity, only the eastern slope being drained by streams crossing the piedmont plain to- 14—Nart. Grog. Maa., vou. VI, 1894. 96 Hayes and Camphell—Appalachian Geomorphology. ward the southeast. The westward-flowing streams in the north- ern portion of the province drain only the plateau region. Far- ther southward New river heads well toward the eastern side of the montanic tract and flows northwestward across the Appalachian valley and the plateau to the Ohio. Between New river and the Tennessee-Georgia line most of the montanic tract and the Ap- palachian valley are in the drainage basin of the Tennessee, whose many branches flow northwestward across the former region and southwestward within the latter to Chattanooga, where the river turns abruptly and enters the plateau region. It crosses first the Walden plateau through a deep canyon, and after flowing seventy miles in Browns valley, parallel to its former course, again enters the plateau and flows northwestward to the nee: n corner of Mississippi, the margin of the former Mississippi embayment. Here it makes another abrupt change in its course, flowing directly northward to the Ohio. South of the Tennessee-Georgia line the Appalachian valley, with the adjacent portions of the montanic tract, are drained by the Coosa-Alabama river, which flows directly to the Gulf. The greater part of the plateau region lying between the New-Kanawha and Tennessee rivers is drained toward the northwest by streams flowing into the Ohio. The most important of these are the Kentucky and Cumberland. ’ CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE. Applying to the streams of the southern Appalachian proy- ince the accepted principles of classification, representatives of all the main divisions are found. - A few show indications of following, in part at least, antecedent courses in which they have persisted through all the vicissitudes the region has suffered. The most striking example of this class is perhaps the New- Kanawha, which seems to hold the course occupied antecedent to the development of the present structure of the region. To the same class belong probably the eastern tributaries of the Tennessee and Alabama systems which cross the montanic tract from its eastern border northwestward to the Appalachian valley; also the streams of the plateau flowing into the Ohio river may be placed in this, although there are some grounds for placing them in the next class. A few of the streams are directly consequent upon the structure of the region, flowing in synelines where their position has been An Anomalous Course. 97 determined by the flexures of the strata. To this class belong portions of the Tennessee and Coosa tributaries, generally rather small streams which in the process of drainage adjustment have been robbed of the greater part of their original basins by others more favorably situated. Many of the stream courses are directly dependent upon the structure, but occupy positions which they have acquired by a process of adjustment subsequent to the deformation of the surface. This class of maturely adjusted subsequent streams includes most of those within the area of folded rocks of the Appalachian valley.. Their courses are on or near the axes of anticlines, positions manifestly impossible in early stages of the folding or before a long process of adjustment had taken place. A few streams show superimposition, probably not from a superjacent horizontal terrane, but by wandering during the later stages of a very complete baseleveling period. Examples of this are seen in the course of the Clinch river where it crosses Lone mountain, and of the Ocoee where it crosses the point of Beans mountain. Finally some streams appear to have become adjusted to cer- tain past conditions of slope and baselevel, so that their courses are not such as they would seek under the influence of condi- tions now existing. A most striking example of such an anom- alous course is that of the Tennessee river. Portions of it may be regarded as inherited from conditions to which they were adjusted in the past, but which have wholly or_in part disap- peared. By a study of the drainage, especially streams of the latter class, a tolerably definite idea of these conditions may be reached. The present river courses indicate the changes in altitude and attitude which have taken place within recent geologic epochs. The history of the same period, interpreted from the topographic features of the province, has been presented in Part I. Evi- dence was found of an almost continuous succession of orogenic oscillations, separated by well marked epochs of tranquillity. These periods, both of tranquillity and orogenic activity, have left an unmistakable impression upon the topography, and it seems reasonable to suppose that they should have produced an equally marked effect upon the drainage. There is a third method of interpreting this history, which until recent years has been considered the only one available; this consists of a study 98 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. of the sediments derived from the waste of the land during the interval and deposited as a fringe around its margin. That the conclusions reached by these three methods of in- vestigation should agree is manifest, and our confidence in them may be in proportion to their concordance. It remains to be seen whether the conclusions already reached can be verified by the study of the drainage and by the sediments deposited in the surrounding seas. CYCLES OF DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT. The evolution of the drainage of this region began with the earliest emergence of Paleozoic sediments from the sea and the consequent increase of the eastern continental area toward the west. This process of emergence is believed to have begun in Cambrian time and to have continued at intervals to the close of the Carboniferous. ‘The character of the drainage is much better known since the final emergence of the entire province than during Paleozoic time. Its modifications can be traced much more definitely because the surrounding conditions are better understood, and hence the history of the drainage development which can be read with any degree of certainty may be consid- ered as beginning with the close of Paleozoic time. This de- velopment has not been a continuous process, but has been at times rapid, and then again for long periods almost stationary. This recurrence of similar conditions in the life history of a river may be termed cycles of drainage development. First comes a general elevation of its drainage basin, by which the stream is rejuvenated. The elevation ceasing, the stream in the course of long ages accomplishes its life-work and sinks into the sluggish-inactivity of old age. This is followed by an uphft and the cycle of events is repeated. Two such cycles are represented on the accompanying diagram, figure 1. The heavy line represents the position of the surface with reference to present sealevel, and hence its changes in alti- tude, by the slow process of degradation and the more rapid process of orogenic movement. The horizontal spaces are roughly proportional to the duration of the periods which constitute a cycle. The first of these cycles was extremely long, reaching from the final emergence of the western half of the province to near the close of the Cretaceous period. It includes the most extensive period of baseleveling known to have affected this v9 ‘face. Oscillations of the Land Sui *[@AO[ BOS JUASATg FR *[OAO] AVATA “UAT, JUeSAIg “IF OCS ai\ ! f : te U ) ‘uaudopaa abvumap fo saplig pun ‘aassauvay, ‘nboounynyg yw daonfungy pun] ayy fo suoyoyposg ay) buimoys wnubnig—T TAO "g o]0AD "Z a]ohQ "TL apaAO = - “9U900ISIO[q ‘“IUVI09ON "9UdD0FT y “Snov0BIOI) *SnOd9BIO1)-91g *JeAaTOSBq AIVIZAT, ‘JaAgjosuq snosovjelg IY OOU'I—M fF fb... M |ovsseeseeess eee citrh Bees Aone > Seeeaeeuis oe AE eek nt een eee T et PO Actn aes “QOVFANS PUB! [RUISLIO—T Wars Ya a eS -=- TAS AS FAT TI II I 2 *SUT[AAO| oe -9Svq PUB UOT}VAIO -Sulpaad]asvq ‘UOISOLe PUB TOTZVOTT[d ‘MOT}BAV]O AlvI}A9 J, snosovjery SsnoddvqaIV-alg recent gorge cutting. and gorge cutting. Lafayette depression and deposition. Columbia depression and Post-Lafayette elevat 100 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. region. The second cycle was much shorter, but the time was sufficient for the warping of the Cretaceous peneplain and the reduction of considerable portions of its surface to a second baselevel. The region has barely entered upon its third cycle, which has thus far been a period of elevation and active erosion, and a peneplain is again in process of formation. CONDITIONS PRECEDING CYCLE 1. Present knowledée of the physiography of the Appalachian province prior to the beginning of this cycle is extremely vague ; but the conditions which then prevailed are so intimately con- nected with the subsequent drainage, having determined the location of the ancestors of the present streams, that they should briefly be considered. As far back as the history of the proy- ince can be traced, from near the beginning of Paleozoic time, a continental land area existed to the eastward of the present Appalachian valley. How far this land extended eastward is not known with any certainty, but it probably reached some- what beyond the present Atlantic coast line. The process is not well understood by which the land included in the present Appalachian valley was added to this old continent. It has been generally supposed that the folding of the region and its elevation above sealevel occurred wholly in post-Carboniferous time. Recent investigations, however, afford ground for the theory that folding occurred at various epochs in the Paleozoic, and that during many of these periods of folding the land area was materially increased and the coast line of the interior sea was pushed further and further westward. Streams flowing westward from the portion of the continent now included in the southern Appalachian province bore down the materials eroded from the land and spread them out over the bottom of the Paleozoic sea. These rivers were certainly the early representatives of the present streams and a few may have persisted in their original courses to the present. The effect upon these streams of the additions to the land area was probably less marked in the northern than in the southern por- tion of the province. Thus in northern Virginia the drainage was westward, though by what stream or streams is not known, from the time of the first emergence of Paleozoic sediments until the entire province was raised above sealevel; in central Vir- ginia the New-Kanawha occupied much the same position as at © Earliest Drainage of the Province. 10] present ; while farther southward some axial drainage may have been developed before the beginning of cycle 1, as defined above. This axial drainage was at first consequent upon the folded sur- face and afterward became subsequent by the process of stream adjustment, but how far the process had gone previous to the beginning of cycle 1 is not known. 1.—CRETACEOUS CYCLE. In the post-Paleozoic history of stream development the first cycle was long and complex—probably very much longer than all the time which has elapsed since its conclusion. It began with the final emergence of the western part of the Appalachian region above sealevel, near the close of the Carboniferous, and ended with the production of the Cretaceous baselevel peneplain which has already been described in Part I. It covered a period of elevation, deformation and erosion, but the products of this erosion were carried far beyond the margin of the sea as located in succeeding epochs and deeply buried beneath the later sedi- ments; hence we are deprived of the evidence which might be afforded by the character of the material, as to the relative eleva- tion and slope of the land. It is not known how many partial peneplains may have been formed during this time, but it is in- ferred that it was in general a period of rapid degradation and correspondingly rapid sedimentation. As stated above, little is known of the process by which the Appalachian valley and the western portion of the province was added to the Paleozoic continent—whether the folding and emergence took place at the same or at different periods. If the corrugation was extremely slow the larger streams may have been and probably were able to cut their channels through the rising folds and for a long time hold their original or antecedent courses toward the northwest. On the other hand, if the folds rose rapidly the streams must have been ponded and most of them diverted to entirely new courses in the synclines; but by the process of river adjustment the final result would be the same in either case. The difference would be that if the folding were very slow the drainage would be first antecedent and then subse- quent, while if it were rapid it would be first consequent and then subsequent. Since there is no evidence in this region, so far as known, that lakes formed by corrugation ever existed, only the first hypothesis—that of slow and long-continued folding—need 102 Hayesand Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. be considered. Local diversion of small streams may very likely have taken place by folding, but the drainage at the close of the Cretaceous cycle was essentially the result of spontaneous ad- justment of the streams to the structure surface revealed by erosion. The chief difficulty in deciphering the record of this drainage development is to determine how much of the adjust- ment took place within this cycle and how much before its beginning. Drainage of northern Virginia—In the northern portion of the province the main streams held their westward courses across the rising folds and found an outlet in the shrinking mediter- ranean sea. At some time during the early part of the cycle a depression occurred in the present piedmont plain, in which the Newark sediments were subsequently deposited. This depres- sion was different from the purely Appalachian type of synclinal fold, more nearly resembling those uplifts described in Part I— slight orogenic movements by which the surface was somewhat broadly arched or depressed, but unaccompanied by any per- ceptible folding of the rocks. This eastward tilting produced a decided effect upon the drainage of the northern portion of the province. ‘The headwaters of the former streams were soon re- versed by the pronounced eastward slope and the divides were forced back some distance from the margin of the Newark ‘sea. Thus the Potomac, the James and the Roanoke had their birth in the subsidence which preceded the deposition of the Newark formation, and presumably in the very earliest stages of this cycle. ‘The influence of this eastward tilting evidently dimin- ished toward the south, for the Potomac drains more of the Ap- palachian valley than the James,and the James more than the Roanoke, while the New-Kanawha holds its original westward course, unaffected by any tilting which may have occurred about its headwaters. Drainage of the southern Appalachian Valley—South of the New- Kanawha basin the main streams also doubtless persisted across the rising folds for a short time after the beginning of the cycle, although in this region the chances of diversion to synclinal troughs were much greater than farther northward, even with ex- tremely slow folding. As soon as the folds had risen sufficiently high so that erosion upon their flanks and summits became active and beds of varying hardness were exposed, southward flowing axial streams, aided by the general southward pitch of the axes, Karly Drainage Adjustments. 103 began a career of conquest and the original streams were succes- sively diverted to southern courses. There are indications in the extreme southern portion of the province that the drainage was more immediately turned to and longer held in consequent courses by the folding than elsewhere. This may have been due to the occurrence of -broad synclinal troughs whose axes have a decided southward pitch. There are at present a few synclinal streams in this region and during the Cretaceous cycle the num- ber and size of such must have been considerably greater; but even here the drainage had probably become so far adjusted that the main streams had subsequent courses upon the anti- clinal axes. In the central portion of the province the Cum- berland river probably drained a portion of the Appalachian valley in southwestern Virginia, holding its antecedent course through Cumberland gap and flowing into the extreme end of the Mississippi embayment. The conquest of axial over transverse streams progressed at a diminishing rate toward the northeast as far as the New- _Kanawha, which had sunk its antecedent channel sufficiently deep for its own protection. Thus at the close of the cycle nearly the whole of the Appa- lachian valley southward’ from the New-Kanawha constituted a single drainage system whose main trunk was a large river flowing southwestward into the Cretaceous sea and occupying very nearly the present position of the Coosa river. The present writers propose the name Appalachian river for this Mesozoic stream, since it was almost entirely limited to the Appalachian valley and drained more than half the area of the valley within this province. Drainage of central Kentucky and Tennessee—In most of the region west of the Appalachian river basin the strata are so nearly horizontal that stream adjustment produced but little modification in the original drainage. The rivers of central Kentucky and Tennessee haye shifted their channels under the influence of more recent surface warping, but at the close of the Cre- taceous cycle they probably flowed directly down a gently sloping surface toward the Mississippi embayment. Many of them were the beheaded lower courses of those streams which originally flowed from the highlands on the east, but had been robbed of their upper drainage basins by the subsequent Appalachian river, 15—Nart. Geog. Maa., von. VI, 1894. 104. Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. Drainage of the Sequatchie Anticline—The Walden plateau syn- cline must originally have been occupied by a consequent south- ward flowing stream, since the axis pitches in that direction and the fold reached the margin of the Cretaceous sea. The lower por- tion of this stream still holds its original position and is now the Black Warrior river. . West of Walden plateau the Sequatchie anticlinal fold brought soft limestones above the Cretaceous baselevel and so afforded ample opportunity for stream adjustment to act. That the Walden synclinal stream did not migrate westward to the anti- clinal axis was probably due to the southward pitch of the latter in northern Alabama by which the hard Carboniferous conglomerate was brought down to baselevel around the point of the anticline; but a stream flowing northwestward in nearly the position of the present Tennessee appears to have been able to capture the drainage of the Sequatchie anticline at some time during the Cretaceous cycle. It is quite possible that the southern portion of the anticline now forming Browns valley was for a time in the Black Warrior drainage; but that the westward diversion. occurred rather early in the cycle is apparent from the imperfect development of the Cretaceous peneplain about its southwestern end, tvhere a subsequent stream flowing into the Black Warrior must have escaped from the anticline, while, on the other hand, the country was very per- fectly reduced to baselevel in the vicinity of the present westward outlet. It was shown in Part I that the axis A B, plate 5, has been the locus of oscillations from very remote geologic time down nearly to the present, and it appears probable that the location of the diverting stream was determined by this axis. The altitude of the Cretaceous peneplain relative to the geologic structure shows that this was a zone of relative elevation during a portion at least of the cycle, and consequently was a line of weakness which erosion would most readily follow, since the soft limestone was there brought nearest the surface. At the close of the first cycle, then, the whole province, except the few residual areas shown on plate 5, was reduced to an almost featureless plain, over which the streams, as sketched above, flowed with sluggish currents in meandering courses. Their transporting power was greatly diminished,.so that the land was being degraded almost wholly by solution and the surface was covered by a heavy mantle of residual material, Drainage Conditions. 105 resulting from a long period of subaeial rock decay. The divides were low, slopes gentle, and’ the drainage systems delicately adjusted among themselves. 2.—TERTIARY CYCLE. The first cycle was brought to a close and the second cycle inaugurated by an uplift of the province. As explained in Part I, the maximum uplift was along certain axial lines which pro- duced a warping of the previously formed peneplain. The first effect of elevation was to revive the streams, so that they began active erosion of their channels. If the uplift had been uniform over the province the streams would simply have persisted in their old courses, but the warping gave some streams a decided advantage over others and the process of adjustment to new conditions produced some decided changes in the drainage. Owing to the delicate interadjustment which the streams had reached during the preceding long period of baseleveling, they were peculiarly susceptible to change, and the first slight warp- _ing, after the baseleveling, was productive of greater changes than that which occurred later. Effects of Uplift on the Axis O P.—The first decided movement at the beginning of this second cycle appears to have taken place along the axis O P, shown on plate 5. The effect which it pro- duced upon the drainage had so direct a bearing on the subse- quent diversion of the Appalachian river to the present course of the Tennessee that a somewhat detailed account of its effects will be given. It must be borne in mind that at the beginning of this cycle the most of the Appalachian valley was occupied by southward flowing streams, which discharged their waters directly into the Cretaceous sea; that the Sand mountain syncline south of the Tennessee gorge was occupied by a consequent stream also flow- ing southwestward to the Cretaceous sea, and that the Sequatchie anticline was held by a subsequent stream flowing, in its lower course, northwestward to the Mississippi embayment. The Cumberland river was at the same time a vigorous stream, prob- ably flowing nearly due westward along the present Kentucky- Tennessee line to the upper end of the Mississippi embayment. The plateau region was almost completely reduced to baselevel and the streams nicely balanced against each other. Under such conditions the slight uplift occurring along the line O P checked 105 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. some streams and started others upon careers of conquest. Only the larger streams continued across the axis, and the courses of these were shifted by the uplift. Thus the axis became a well marked divide between eastward and westward flowing streams. It crossed the present Tennessee gorge about midway from Chattanooga to the Sequatchie valley and determined the posi- tion of the divide against which streams of the Appalachian and Sequatchie systems worked during the whole of the second eycle. Northward from the Tennessee gorge it diagonally crossed Wal- den plateau, the Sequatchie anticline and the Cumberland plateau to the western escarpment of the latter, diverting to the eastward Appalachian system the heads of many streams which had previously flowed westward. The uplift on this axis was greatest in the vicinity of Chattanooga, from which it decreased in either direction. Toward the north the pitch of the axis was quite rapid, producing a marked effect upon the course of the Cumberland river. That stream, as stated above, probably flowed due westward near the present Kentucky-Tennessee line. It was too large to be diverted eastward to the Appalachian system, but it was so checked by the rising fold that a tributary crossing the axis 50 miles further northward, where the uplift was less, had sufficient advantage over the main stream to carry off its headwaters to the more favorable position. As indicated above and shown upon plate 4, the streams of Sand mountain south of the Tennessee gorge flow westward from the extreme eastern edge of the plateau and have cut deep notches in its western side, in some cases even beyond the center of the basin. In Walden ridge, a continuation of the same plateau north of the Tennessee gorge, all the streams flow east- ward, heading in some cases only a few hundred yards from the western escarpment. These have cut deep notches in the eastern side of the plateau. This peculiar drainage is due chiefly to the axis of uplift O P, described above, but also in part to local conditions which continued from the preceding cycle. In the first place, the anticlinal valley west of the plateau was formed by a southward flowing stream, so that its southern portion was first excavated and erosion progressed toward the north ; hence the streams flowing from the plateau into the southern part of the valley had lower outlets, and so cut more rapidly than those toward the north. East of this southern part of the plateau is Drainage Adjustments about Chattanooga. 107 an anticlinal and synclinal fold—Lookout valley and moun- tain—of which the latter was probably not reduced entirely to the Cretaceous baselevel, and hence afforded a protecting bul- wark against erosion upon the eastern side of Sand mountain. North of the present Tennessee gorge the conditions were exactly reversed. The western side of the plateau was protected from erosion by the Sequatchie anticline, the eastern limb of which, composed of heavy conglomerate, had probably remained some- what above the Cretaceous baselevel, turning the drainage east- ward to the Appalachian rivers, whose valleys were rapidly lowered upon soft rocks early in the Tertiary cycle. These streams cut deep notches in the eastern side of the plateau as far south as Chattanooga, beyond which the eastern side was pro- tected by the Lookout mountain syncline of hard sandstone, as already explained. As a result of these peculiar conditions the plateau was attacked by streams on both its eastern and western sides only within a strip a few miles broad, where the Tennessee river now crosses. Here deep notches were cut on opposite sides of the plateau and the capping sandstone removed on several lines entirely across. So long as the uplift on the axis O P con- tinued the divide was held stationary and neither set of streams encroached upon the territory of the other, but the cols were reduced nearly to the valley level on either side, and the way thus prepared for the diversion of the Appalachian river, later in the cycle. The uplift along this axis probably continued with diminishing force through the first half of the Tertiary cycle or possibly longer. During the same period variable amounts of uplift occurred in other portions of the province, which was thus brought to an altitude from 109 to 1,000 feet higher than that held at the close of the Cretaceous cycle. — Prob- ably other stream adjustments similar to those described in the Chattanooga district were brought about by this unequal uplift ; but in general the streams simply sank their channels below the surface of the peneplain, following the same courses as in the preceding cycle. Wherever these courses were located upon soft rocks the rivers were quickly lowered to the newly estab- lished baselevel and began to widen their channels, forming a second peneplain. Condition of Drainage prior to the Lafayette Depression—Thus toward the close of the Tertiary cycle the streams flowing west- 108 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. ward had cut broad baselevel valleys, described in Part I, in the soft horizontal limestone of the plateau region and in some of the folded rocks immediately eastward. The greater part of the Sequatchie anticline had thus been reduced to a peneplain continuous with the more extensive one through the plateau to the westward. Cumberland river had cut deeply into the old Cretaceous peneplain and again baseleveled its valley in the soft limestones of the plateau region. It also probably baseleveled a small area of folded rocks in the Appalachian valley—the pres- ent basin of Powell river which then flowed westward through Cumberland gap. The New-Kanawha had cut an extensive peneplain in the Carboniferous limestone on the eastern side of the West Virginia coal field, and also in the folded Cambro- Silurian limestone of the valley region. The latter limestone is less soluble and homogeneous than the former, so that its out- crops were less perfectly reduced, forming a rolling surface in- stead of a level plain. In the southeastern portion of the province the uplift of the Cretaceous peneplain was so slight that the streams were scarcely at all accelerated, and in the vicinity of Atlanta deepened their channels not more than 100 feet throughout the whole Tertiary cycle. From the New-Kanawha southwestward to the margin of the Tertiary sea the Appalachian river and its tributaries had cut deeply into the Cretaceous peneplain and reduced all areas of soft rocks, more or less completely, to the new baselevel. The -physiography of this Tertiary peneplain has already been de- scribed in some detail. The plain was very perfectly developed over areas of pure limestone, while silicious limestones, shales and sandstones formed a rolling surface or ridges of varying heights, in proportion to their induration or capacity for resist- ing erosion. It seems probable that the great Appalachian river was formed by two main branches which flowed in nearly parallel courses to their junction west of Rome, Georgia. The western branch followed the present course of the Clinch and Tennessee to Chattanooga, and thence of the Chickamauga and Chattooga to the junction of the latter with the Coosa; the eastern branch followed the course of the Holston and continued southward from Knoxville along the base of the Great Smoky mountains ‘ Extent of the Peneplain. 109 to the Coosa at Rome, and thence to its junction with the western branch. DIVERSION OF THE APPALACHIAN RIVER. It is stated above that the drainage of the Appalachian valley was southwestward, from the New-Kanawha basin to the sea margin, until the close of the Tertiary baseleveling period. Since the date of diversion of this drainage is an extremely im- portant point in the history of the region and since the above statement is hable to be questioned, the grounds on which it is based will be given in some detail. The evidence is derived from (1) the perfectly baseleveled divide between the Tennessee and Coosa river basins; (2) a comparison of the volume of ma- terial eroded from the Appalachian valley with that of the Tertiary sediments in central Alabama; and (3) the immaturity of the Tennessee gorge through the plateau below Chattanooga. Evidence from the Coosa-Tennessee Divide—As already stated, a peneplain, extending from the Cumberland plateau on the north- west to the Great Smoky mountains on the southeast, stretches from the head of the Holston and Clinch rivers to the edge of the Tertiary sediments in central Alabama. This peneplain is well shown in the photograph of the relief map of this region reproduced as plate 4. It is as perfectly developed across the Coosa-Tennessee divide as elsewhere, and shows no perceptible variation in the two basins except the gradual southward de- scent shown in plate 6 and due to subsequent differential eleva- tion. It extends across the Appalachian valley from Pigeon mountain to the base of the Cohutta mountains, a distance of 40 miles, interrupted only by the valley ridges of hard sand- stone or by low knobs of silicious Knox dolomite. Since the peneplain is developed only on soft rocks, it is possible that the divides might have been cut down to their present altitudes by backward erosion of headwaters while the streams occupied their present courses; but while the altitude of the divides is not conclusive evidence that the main streams have flowed across them, the breadth of the valley upon the divide materially strengthens the evidence. By the backward cutting of streams at their headwaters a characteristic dendritic, inosculating drain- age is developed, and it seems improbable that the divides should have been maintained in their present position throughout the Tertiary cycle without producing this characteristic surface, which is conspicuously absent. 110 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. It should be remarked that while the writers formerly regarded the character of the divides between these drainage basins as conclusive evidence that large streams flowed across them until the close of the Tertiary period of baseleveling, they have recently _ found reasons for modifying this conclusion. A study of the divides between drainage basins throughout the Appalachian valley from Pennsylvania southward shows that most of them are quite perfectly reduced to the altitude of the Tertiary pene- plain in adjacent basins, although not generally so broadly cut as the one in question. There is no reason, so far as known, for supposing that the divides between the Potomac and James or the James and Roanoke basins have shifted during the Tertiary cycle, yet they are nearly as inconspicuous as those between the Tennessee and Coosa. On the other hand, the divide between the New and Holston basins has the form of a narrow col, such as would be expected to characterize all long-maintained divides. | Kvidence from the Volume of Material eroded and deposited—The second line of evidence bearing on the date at which the Appa- lachian drainage was diverted to its present westward course is derived from a comparison of the volumes of Tertiary erosion and Tertiary sediments. It is comparatively easy to compute the volume of the material which was removed by the rivers during the Tertiary cycle, when the vertical distance between the previously existing peneplain and the one developed during the Tertiary cycle is known, together with their lateral extent ; also a tolerably safe estimate may be made of the volume of sediments deposited by each of the rivers during the Tertiary cycle. If the drainage during the whole of the cycle was essen- tially as it is at present, then the volume of sediments which would naturally be deposited by the present streams and the volume of the material eroded by those streams should show a practical agreement. The formations laid down during the Ter- tiary cycle are regarded as including (1) the Ripley—sands and sandy clays overlying the Rotten limestone and marking the uplift which terminated the preceding cycle; (2) Lignitie; (8) Buhrstone ; (4) Claiborne; (5) White limestone *—a series de- creasing in coarseness and increasing in amount of calcareous *The Tertiary and Cretaceous Strata of the Tuscaloosa, Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers, by Eugene A. Smith and Lawrence C. Johnson: U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, Bull. 43, 1887, 189 pp., 21 pls. ee ee ee ee Se Se eee 3 Comparison of Evosion and Deposition. 111 matter contained. The sediments brought down by a Tertiary stream, corresponding in location to the present Alabama river, were spread over the adjacent sea bottom, mingling on the east with the sediments brought down by the Chattahoochee and on the west with those brought down by the Tombigbee. It is probable that more sediment was brought down by the Alabama than by the streams on either side, since it occupies the axis of uplift where the greatest erosion took place. Hence if a line be drawn midway between the Alabama and Chattahooche on the east and between the Alabama and Tombigbee on the west the area included would certainly not be wider than the deposition area of the axial river. The area included by these lines and by the limits of the Ripley and White limestone formations is about 6,500 square miles. The thickness of the sediments in this area, down to the bottom of the Ripley, varies from 0 at the northern edge to 1,900 feet at the southern edge, and their volume is about 1,170 cubic miles; but these formations extend under the covering of later, deposits, thinning out seaward, and while it is impossible to determine their extent or thickness in that direction, it seems a conservative estimate to regard the volume of the sediments in the seaward extension of the forma- tions as equal to that of the actual outcrops. This estimate would make the volume of the sediments which may be at- tributed to the stream whose lower course occupied the present position of -Alabama river during the Tertiary cycle about 2,340 cubie miles. Turning now to the volume of material eroded from the Cre- taceous peneplain during the Tertiary cycle by the Alabama and its tributaries, the basis for an estimate is somewhat better than in the case of the sediments. The greater part of the ero- sion has been in the valley of the Coosa and comparatively little in that of the Tallapoosa—first, because the vertical dis- tance between the baseleyels is greater in the former than the latter river basin, and, second; because the rocks are softer and hence have been more perfectly reduced. Throughout most of the Coosa basin the two peneplains are sufficiently well pre- served so that a definite estimate can be made of the material removed during the Tertiary cycle. The amount of .elevation and distortion which the Cretaceous peneplain suffered at the close of the Cretaceous cycle may be determined from a compar- ison of plates 5 and 6. It varies from 900 or 1,000 feet at the 16—Nar. Grog. Maa., vor. VI, 1894. 112 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. Tennessee-Georgia line to 0 where the two plains coincide in southern Alabama. , but also from a series of connecting channels occupied by the streams G, H and K. A careful study of the Tertiary peneplain in this region shows it to be higher on the eastern than on the western side of Walden plateau. In the vicinity of Chattanooga its altitude is nearly 900 feet, while in Sequatchie valley it is somewhat less than 800 feet; hence there appears to be a difference of at least 100 feet in the altitude of these two neighboring peneplains formed dur- ing the same period of baseleveling. A corresponding difference in the altitude of the Lafayette gravels was noted above. The probable explanation of this difference in altitude is found in the fact that the Sequatchie river had during the Tertiary cycle a more direct outlet to the sea than the Appalachian river, and also was flowing on softer and more homogeneous rocks ; hence its valley was more perfectly baseleveled, and indeed it seems probable that under the exceptionally favorable conditions there prevailing the Sequatchie river may have reduced its gradient southward from the Tennessee line almost to zero. If the Appa- lachian river on the opposite side of Walden plateau were 100 feet higher than the Sequatchie it would have a descent of LOO feet in about 400 miles, or a fall of 3 inches per mile. Consider- 1i8 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorpholoyy. ing the nature of the rocks over which it was flowing, this rate would seem quite consistent with the formation of an extensive peneplain. This difference in altitude of ine drainage on opposite sides of Walden plateau gave the streams flowing westward a very decided advantage over those flowing eastward. So long as the uplift continued on the line O P this advantage was not suffi- cient to push the divide eastward beyond that line. Before the close of the Tertiary baseleveling, however, this uplift probably ceased and the westward streams then bezan a career of conquest which resulted in changing the course of the entire drainage of eastern Tennessee. The process by which this conquest was accomplished is prob- ably somewhat as follows: The advantage which the westward drainage possessed by reason of its more rapid descent enabled the stream N to push the divide from 0 to c, capturing a portion of the drainage area of the eastward flowing stream G. The contest was thus transferred to the divides cande. The large volume of water coming from the plateau northward apparently determined the location of most rapid cutting at e, for while the divide ¢ was pushed back only a short distance to its present position at d, the stream ef was reversed and the headwaters of H diverted westward, f and h thus becoming the actively con- tested divides. As in the previous case, cutting was most rapid at h, and while the divide f was pushed ‘back to its present posi- tion at g, the branch h i was reversed and the headwaters of K diverted to the westward drainage. How far this process ‘had gone before the end of the Tertiary baseleveling it is impossible to say, but it was probably well under way. The warping which accompanied the Lafayette depression gave the westward streams a still further advantage, and early in that depression the divide i was pushed eastward, reversing the flow, first, of the stream K, and then Z to the junction of the latter with the Clinch-Appa- lachian river. Although the latter was a comparatively large — river, the advantages possessed by the westward stream were sufficient to overbalance the advantage of size, and the Clinch- Appalachian river was captured and led off westward through the newly cut gorge. The capture of the western fork of the Appalachian river was probably followed shortly after by that of the eastern fork. This was accomplished by a tributary of the former working backward from Kingston to Loudon. Thus Effect of Land Warping on Drainage. 119 the drainage of the Appalachian valley assumed practically the form which it has today. As indicated in the above discussion of drainage adjustment, the present writers have reached the conclusion that an ex- tremely important factor in the process is the slow and gentle warping of the surface which has accompanied every epeirogenic movement of which there is any record. We believe this factor is only less important than the great structural features of a region, and in some eases, of which the Tennessee is a notable example, the structure of the region has played a secondary part in determining the drainage courses. This gentle warping of the surface has hitherto been recognized only in a general way and few attempts have been made to locate axes; conse- quently the manner in which it influences drainage has not yet been discussed. The writers have in preparation a paper in which an attempt will be made to formulate the laws of this action and to show much more fully than the limits of the present paper will permit to what extent it has determined the courses of the Appalachian streams. 3.—PRESENT CYCLE. Northward diversion of the Tennessee River—The Lafayette de- pression, with its accompanying deposition of coarse sediments about the border of the province, occupied the closing epoch of the Tertiary cycle. The next, which may properly be termed the Present cycle, was inaugurated, like the two preceding, by uplift, and the uplift was accompanied by warping of the surface. The southern portion of the province was tilted northward, prob- ably somewhat beyond the Memphis-Charleston axis. The rivers whose lower courses had been rendered sluggish or even submerged by the preceding depression were stimulated to renewed activity and began a rapid trenching of the lately de- posited Lafayette formation. The land area was extended con- siderably beyond its present limits, and the rivers throughout their lower courses cut deep gorges, forming notches in the present submerged continental shelf. The uplift along the southern border of the province was so rapid that only the larger streams or those favorably located upon soft rocks were able to keep their channels down near baselevel. The Alabama river, although only the shrunken representative of the once powerful Appalachian river, had its lower course located on sqft Tertiary 17—Nar. Grog. Maa., von, VI, 1894, 120 Hayes and Camphell—Appalachian Geomorphology. limestones, sands and clays, so that it was able to keep pace with this uplift and retain its southward course unchanged to the Gulf. The Mississippi, by reason of its greater volume, was also able to keep near baselevel, and as the land rose cut a deep gorge through the Lafayette and well into or through the under- lying Tertiary and Cretaceous formations. The westward flowing stream which had diverted the Appa- lachian drainage occupied in its lower course about the position of Black river, and it probably continued in this course a short time after the post-Lafayette elevation began—long enough, at least, to cut through the mantle of Lafayette gravel down to the Grand gulf, which is the most indurated of all the Mississippi embayment formations. While the lower course of this river was thus held in check: by the elevation of the indurated beds, northward flowing streams were greatly stimulated by the tilt- ing of the surface in that direction. Small streams flowing north- ward to the Ohio along the strike of the easily erodible Creta- ceous beds therefore had a double advantage over those flowing westward or southwestward, and by cutting backward were able to capture and divert the Tennessee river to a northward course. After a comparatively short period of elevation the province was again depressed, though not so much as during the Lafay- ette epoch, and this depression was in turn followed by elevation to the presentaltitude. The record of these oscillations is found chiefly in the deposits and erosion forms of the region border- ing the Appalachian province, and hence is somewhat beyond the scope of this paper. The time was too short for permanent records to be inscribed on the land surface in the interior. Minor stream adjustments doubtless occurred, and the rivers sank their channels within the surface of the Tertiary peneplain, in some regions deeply dissecting that surface, as already described in Part I) SUMMARY OF THE DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LAND OSCILLA- TIONS. . It is seen from the foregoing that the present course of the Tennessee river is extremely complex, and that a history of its development is practically a history of the province in post- Paleozoic time. Different portions of the river course furnish a record of the various vicissitudes through which the province has passed, or at least confirm the record found in other physio- Tistory of the Tennessee River. 121 graphic features. We haye seen that most of the eastern tribu- taries are very old, having occupied approximately their present positions while the western portion of the province was still covered by the great inland sea. From the eastern highlands they brought down the vast Paleozoic sediments and built the floor of the future continent. As successive belts of these sediments were lifted to form dry land and the sea margin migrated westward, the streams extended their lower courses to the shrinking sea. Then during the long period of Appalachian folding and the longer period of degradation these westward- flowing streams were diverted to southward courses and collected in a single great stream, the Appalachian river. In the early part of this long cycle the southern portion of the province stood relatively higher, so that until the close of the Jurassic the materials carried down by the Appalachian river were swept to unknown distances and deeply buried beneath the later Mesozoic sediments. Early in the Cretaceous the land was tilted seaward and the water advanced to the present inner margin of the Cretaceous sediments. At the close of the cycle the Appa- lachian river wandered over a broad and nearly featureless plain. The second cycle began with uplift of the land, and broad valleys were cut by the streams nearly to their headwaters. Then came the Lafayette depression, accompanied by warping, which gave so great advantage to the streams flowing westward along the axis A B that the upper Appalachian drainage was captured and led off to the Mississippiembayment. The great river was scarcely adjusted to its new position before the tilting of the surface again changed it northward to its present cotrse into the Ohio. Thus the lower portion of the Tennessee river dates from the present cycle. The portion in northern Alabama and across Walden plateau was occupied at the close of the Tertiary cycle ; that in the Appalachian valley was adjusted during the long Cretaceous cycle; and, finally, the tributaries flowing from the present Smoky mountains have inherited their courses from the early Paleozoic continent. In conclusion, a graphic representation of this history will be given, in order to bring together the conclusions contained in the preceding portions of this paper. The oscillations of the surface have been so variable, accompanied by such diverse warping, that the relations of the surface of the whole region to sealevel cannot be represented diagramatically ; but if a single 122. Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. point on the surface be taken its relations to sealevel may be so represented. A point on the present site of Chattanooga has been selected as fairly representative and where the various alti- tudes can be well determined. These relations are represented in the diagram, figure 1, page 99. The vertical lines divide the space into five time divisions. These divisions are only approximately proportional to the time, the late divisions being much too large and the earlier divisions too small. Taking the horizontal line at the base of the diagram as sealevel, the full line represents the altitude of the main stream channels and the dotted lines their altitudes at former periods marked by the remnants of baselevel peneplains still existing. The upper dotted line L in the diagram indicates the position of the original land surface with reference to sealevel. Its distance above the present land surface at the right of the diagram corresponds with the thick- ness of strata removed by erosion from the point taken, which is on an anticlinal fold and hence upon rocks low in the series. The thickness of the rocks eroded is only represented approxi- mately, since the original thickness of the Carboniferous is not known. The line K represents the altitude of the land surface slowly approaching sealevel by degradation during the long cycle of Cretaceous baseleveling. It is scarcely probable that the land remained stationary during this long period. There were doubtless minor oscillations, but these have left no record upon the surface and hence cannot be represented. Atthe close of the Cretaceous cycle came the elevation of the surface shown by the rise in the line K at the beginning of the second time division. With the elevation, the line K ceases to represent the stream level which is indicated by the heavy line 7, diverging from K at first rapidly and then slowly, the peneplain being developed during the Tertiary cycle. Since this cycle was not so long as the preceding and the baseleveling not so complete, the line T does not approach so near sealevel as the line K. During the third period, which was one of depression, the lines K and 7 remain parallel, since little, if any, erosion was taking place at Chattanooga at that time. With the elevation at the end of the Lafayette depression the line 7'in turn ceases to rep- resent the stream level which is indicated by the line P, and this diverges continually to the present except during the Columbia depression. Thus the various lines at the right of the diagram indicate the position of various plains of erosion with reference Character of Sediments. . £23 to each other and to present sealevel, but not to sealevel in past time. The lowest line, P, the present flood plain of the Ten- nessee river, is 650 feet above sealevel ; the second, 7, the Ter- tiary peneplain, is 250 feet above the present river; the third, K, the Cretaceous peneplain, is about 1,100 feet above the Ter- tiary ; and, last, the original land surface is about 5,000 or 6,0Q0 feet above the Cretaceous baselevel. Part ITI—Sepimentary Recorp. The variation in character of sediments deposited on the southern border of the Appalachian province during Cretaceous and later time has been briefly referred to, and also the correla- tion between kind of sediment and attitude of land. The con- clusions reached by other lines of evidence are so fully borne out by a consideration of the sediments that the subject merits a somewhat fuller treatment. The character of sedimentary rocks is usually regarded as indicative of the depth of water in which they were formed, and while this is in a measure true, a. more important element is probably the character and attitude of the adjacent land from which the sediments were derived. High land is subjected to active degradation, especially if it has been recently elevated and is covered by a heavy mantle of residual material. Its streams have rapid fall and are supplied with an abundant load of coarse mechanical sediment which they carry in great volume to the sea. Under such conditions of rapid erosion the deposits formed are gravels, sands and clays, generally highly colored from the complete oxidation of the re- sidual mantle before transportation. Solution is at the same time going on, butethe volume of material removed by that means is small in comparison with the mechanical sediment, and the pro- portion of calcareous matter is correspondingly small in the de- posits formed. As the cycleadvances the gradients of the streams decrease, and with it their carrying capacity. Hence the pro- portion of matter in solution is increased by the diminution in the absolute amount of mechanical sediment and the deposits become correspondingly more calcareous. In the final stages of baseleveling, chemical agents are more active than mechanical ; the sluggish streams are able to transport only the finest silt in suspension and the resulting deposit is a more or less pure limestone. The character of the sediments derived from the 124 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. southern Appalachian region during the long period of degrada- tion which it has suffered ought to show gradations from arena- ceous to calcareous, corresponding with the stage of develop- ment of the cycle in which deposition dccurred, coarse sands and clays when a surface subjected to a long period of subaerial decay and rock disintegration was elevated so as to stimulate stream transportation, and calcareous shales and limestones when the surface had been so far reduced to baselevel that only fine sediment in suspension or matter held in solution was carried by the streams. Since the geomorphy of the interior proves the existence of several of these cycles of continental development, one should expect to find cycles of sedimentation corresponding in geologic age and degree of completeness. The record of sedimentation in the Gulf region from the Tus- caloosa (probably late Jurassic or early Cretaceous) to the close of the Vicksburg or White limestone (late Eocene) is fairly con- tinuous and complete. Arranging the formations intervening between these limits in their proper order and assigning to each a space, not in proportion to its thickness, but to the prob- able time occupied by its formation, the curve shown in figure 3 is derived, in which the horizontal coordinates represent relative time, and the vertical coordinates relative coarseness or fineness of the sediments. Thus the curve expresses imme- diately the variation in character of the sediments carried into the sea by the southern Appalachian rivers during Cretaceous and Tertiary time and, by inference, the altitude of the land over which the rivers flowed. The character and amount of material carried off by these streams during the long period of degrada- tion preceding the Cretaceous can only be inferred from the ‘known character and amount of rocks removed for the sedi- ments were carried to an unknown distance seaward and con- cealed by overlap beneath the subsequent formations. The accessible record begins with the Tuscaloosa, a thick deposit of sands and clays marking rapid erosion and great carrying power of the streams, and hence a considerable altitude of the land surface. Through the Eutaw and into the Rotten limestone the sediments show a decrease in coarseness and an increase in cal- careous matter, and the curve approaches the horizontal axis, continuing approximately parallel with it throughout nearly the whole of the Rotten limestone. This marks a long period dur- . sero, sete | et oS Conclusions from the Sedimentary Record. 125 ing which the transporting power of the streams was gradually diminishing and the surface approaching baselevel at a con- stantly decreasing rate. This great mass of calcareous sediment, part of which is a mechanical deposit, points to erosion of ex- tensive limestone areas which must have been in the Appa- lachian valley; hence the character of the formation siipports the conclusion reached from other evidence, that the drainage of that region was southward during the whole of the Cre- -taceous cycle. Passing the Rotten limestone, the curve leaves the horizontal axis, and in the Lignitic reaches its farthest distance therefrom, marking a period of high land or steep slopes and rapidly cutting streams. From this point it rapidly de- scends through the Buhrstone and Claiborne to the Vicksburg ic 2 #4 3 = Cate =o os 2 i < 2 L iS) : Oo) = Pa Bays wires) og : oH ne Z eo) ail ais 5) ai ea = ‘4 — ~ . - es o @ = 2 = B = id 4S = 8 = 2 = 2 = 5 > = io! 5p 2, ‘SI rr =) n 4 cy S = = ° te) =) =] > Oo 4 ia] =| oS co A Eocene. Cretaceous. Fiaure 3.—Diagram showing variation in Character of Cretaceous and Tertiary Sediments in Alabama. limestone, showing a rapid decrease in carrying power of the streams and a near approach to baselevel in the valleys. . It is thus seen that during the time covered by the sedimentary record in southern Alabama there were two periods in which the land stood high and the streams were rapidly degrading the surface, and that these alternated with two periods in which the land was low, approximately at baselevel, and the streams carried little sediment, but were degrading the surface by solu- tion. Hence two baselevel peneplains separated by a considera- ble uplift are to be sought in the region from which the sedi- ments were derived. The two already described fulfill all the theoretical conditions, and the correlation of these peneplains, from other considerations, with Cretaceous and Tertiary time is 126 Hayes and Campbell—Appalachian Geomorphology. greatly strengthened. On the Atlantic slope the data are not so complete. Almost all of the sediments were derived directly from the granitic rocks of the piedmont plain, and hence show less differentiation in character than the rocks of the Gulf coast. So far as known there is nothing in the character of the Atlantic coastal plain sediments which will conflict with the conclusions giver above, but exact correlations cannot at present be made. Thus the same history of the province which was read in the forms of the land surface and in the location of the streams is also found recorded in the sediments derived from its erosion. The three lines of investigation outlined at the beginning of this paper are found to lead to harmonious results and each to sup- plement the others. While many details remain to be worked out, the main features of post-Paleozoic history of the southern Appalachians as given above seem fairly well determined. Unitep States GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, . ; Washington, D. C. NAT. GEOG. MAG. i rae A sak : Hi, \ ra il WJ | ttt SPSSLASS 1 ye \ = ninety miles One inch - MILES 0 6070 VOL. VI., 1894. PL. 5. e _ mx LZ i ia J ‘ rt Catt rn tf IX. \ - Ms showing the deformed CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN and the areas not reduced to BASELEVEL ty C.Willard Hayes” Marius R.Campbell CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTS AREAS NOT REDUCED LIMESTONE SAND & CLAY TO BASELEVEL APPALACHIAN VALLEY NAT. GEOG MAG. ot 90 89 68 a 86 Ee H To S | H i H | Gielnndts (/ ss | ff | Z | yd | y 1) oudsvile | y 37} ia) One inch = ninety miles MILES te a a9 Ys VOL. VI. 1894. PL 5, 62 3 80 j L Nee / Yt ] AS %, Z Li Z ; oy SB a} % f y é ae ZY y il LACIE | y ae [ BOGE GISCLA VES SN Ly : —_t. le \) \ 1+ LEIA Abbtiaros ALIS EEN o eG Savaknal Nl MAP — PPA p ‘ apmnern APPALACH UG, Ny S showing the deformed S 32] i CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN | and the areas not reduced to BASELEVEL Ry CWillard Hayes Marius R.Campbell Dalh 4 - CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTS: AREAS NOT REDUCED | LIMESTONE SAND & CLAY 70 BASELEVEL APPALACHIAN WALLET —— ZZ es aa ai 20 5 75 ‘5 —— THE MOARIS PETERS CO. PROTOLITHHO. WAsed * a + a ke wes NAT. GEOG. MAG. i >> > me = . “ Tee} ; k ~ ir i .) ha 5 f _. \ = E- \ SY NERCAN ee / SMARTER AN AR AA PTA a teh Wy VOL. VI.,1894. PL.6. RN APPALAc apne f 3° showing the deformed S TERTIARY PENEPLAIN and the areas not reduced to BASELEVEL By C.Willard Hayes Marius R.Campbell AREAS NOT REDUCED TERTIARY SEOIMENTS TO BASELEVEL APPALACHIAN VALLEY 7 NAT. GEOG. MAG. VOL. VI., 1894. PL6. 79 91 80, 80 68 1 87 86 85 = ; _ 5 — = _ ~ ! i f ) Papier ag | X i { A | an | Z CNG Mbt UN WA oe : Eee SS Sal | a. Ginelnngti i] 4 : Ps j et pee ) hing! EN \ i pe, al | a, \ f/ wf | iV I 4 \ vers \, | SLonarieat : Ke D of, jsville v 4 4 . \ ys { f° i i ! i. id g Lv C \ “ J, P Le fi ay La\*, es of br g /) F $ i f; ; By le / ZB ppiisine “ y) fi < i : ‘ I i I + ha » mye 1 — : a Za | SAS) y ‘ a PAVE Le waa | Se — of curmn hve, gl 7 \ a ¥ LF x emia KS * \ 5 “oe eS ) se 2 7 = f \) \ Y } b | Y Z. Ee ROK ~N AN 5 lL Meniphis 9) JO WY Hera Sameraraes STANAN| ar Ky X Wp aes SAN Cp =\=—.—4 tal = wf > NUS s 4 a Wi Soci fb SES SSeS < | aN i i NESS Y a Nn i | f SNS SSE fin ; BI SOAS, + es = ANT] | a 4 SS. feel Ba tit RS E > LAN I Vay has y Atl er \ ‘A ‘\ We d NI \/ ~ ” ie | ‘ meh Sige fy | \ I d ! 0 \ 33) AN im a \ \\ ( MAP ARN \ ~. ‘ 7 : =e of the 5 ten! SNES ISS \ A \ D VR Sep > rae APPALAGy B | LY ate 1G FE 7 O* I gov j x — KA Noy showing the deformed z y SSAA 32 a Hi ee ca a ( H Savahnoh’ ae — : TERTIARY PENEPLAIN ; ry yf : (? and the areas not reduced to x y y | t BASELEVEL a By F ; SCALE hao) } hy C.Willard Hayes" Marlus R.Campbell ae One inch ~ ninety miles H . p AREAS NOT REDUCED MILES | anh ‘ TERTIARY SEOIMENTS TO BASELEVEL APPALACHIAN VALLEY 1 i Voie ee. = | 68 87 36 85 ot Be ar 20 73 78 77 6 3 Feel he 7 ney a.) f lesy: PLS. 7, 8 : JUNE 22, 1894 IE BATTLE OF THE FOREST B. E. FERNOW A.D.1888. BAN aha WASHINGTON Pusiisuep pY Tar National Groarapuic Society I Price 25 cents. Ae Brose omy el we o— € - ’ . i NAT. GEOG. MAG. VOL. VI, 1894. PL. 7. DROWNING THE TORRENT. 1. Wattle-work at summit. 3. A masonry dam. 2. Spronted wattle dam. 4. Reforestation of denuded mountain side. VoL. VI, PP. 127-148, PLS. 7, 8 JUNE 22, 1894 GE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE BATTLE OF THE FOREST BY B. E. FERNOW (Presented before the Society December 15, 1893) The earth is a potential forest. Given time, freedom from geologic revolutions and from interference by» man, and tree- growth must finally dominate everywhere, with few excepted localities. Its perennial nature and its elevation in height above all other forms of vegetation, together with its remarkable recuperative powers, assure to the arborescent flora this final victory over its competitors. So impressed was Dr Asa Gray with the persistence of indi- vidual tree life that he questioned whether a tree need ever die: ‘For the tree [unlike the animal] is gradually developed by the successive addition of new parts. It annually renews not only its buds and leaves, but its wood and its roots; everything, indeed, that is concerned in its life and growth. ‘Thus, like the fabled Aison, being restored from the decrepitude of age to the bloom of early youth, the most recent branchlets being placed by means of the latest layer of wood in favorable communica- tion with the newly formed roots.and these extending at a cor- responding rate into fresh soil, why has not the tree all the O77 18—Nar. Goa. Maa., von. VI, 1894. (127) 128 B. Eb. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. conditions of existence in the thousandth that is possessed in the hundredth or the tenth year of its age? “The old and central part of the trunk may, indeed, decay, but. this is of little moment, so long as new layers are regularly formed at the circumference. The tree survives, and it is diffi- cult to show that it is liable to death from old age in any proper sense of the term.” * However this may be, we know trees succumb to external causes. Nevertheless they are perennial enough to outlive aught else, ‘‘ To be the oldest inhabitants of the globe, to be more ancient than any human monument, as exhibiting in some of its survivors a living antiquity compared with which the moulder- ing relics of the earliest Egyptian civilization, the pyramids themselves, are but structures of yesterday.” The dragon trees, so called, found on the island of Tenerife, off the African coast, are believed to be many thousand years old. The largest is only 15 feet in diameter and 75 feet high. Our sequoias are more rapid growers and attain in 3,000 to 4,000 years, which may be the highest age of living ones, more than double these dimensions. While this persistence of life is one of the attributes which in the battle for life must count of immeasurable advantage, the other characteristic of arboreal development, its elevation in height above everything living, is no less an advantagé over all competitors for light, the source of all life. Can there be any doubt that in this competition size must ultimately triumph and the undersized go to the wall? Endowed with these weapons of defensive and offensive war- fare, forest-growth, through all geologic ages during which the earth supported life, has endeavored and no doubt to a degree succeeded in gaining possession of the earth’s surface. As terra firma increased emerging in islands above the ocean, so increased the area of the forest, changing in composition to correspond with the change of physical and climatic conditions. As early as the Devonian age, when but a small part of our continent was formed, the mud flats and sand reefs, ever increas- ing by new accumulations under the action of the waves and currents of the ocean, were changed from a bare and lifeless world above tidelevel to one of forest-clad hills and dales. *Longevity of Trees: ‘‘Scientific papers of Asa Gray’’ (selected by Chas. Sargent), vol. 2, 1889, p. 71. Types of early Flora. 129 Not only were such quaint forms as the tree rushes or Cala- mites, Lepidodendra and Sigillaria present, but the prototype of our pine, the Dadoxylon, had made its appearance. The same class of flowerless plants known as vascular crypto- gams, with the colossal tree ferns added, became more numerous and luxuriant in the Carboniferous age, as well as the flowering Sigillaria and coniferous Dadoxylon. This vegetation probably spread over all the dry land, but the thick deposits of vegetable remains accumulating in ne marshy places under dense jungle growth and in shallow lakes with floating islands, were finally in the course of geologic revolutions, turned into the great coal fields. In those and subsequent geologic times some of the floral types vanished altogether and new ones originated, so that at the end of Mesozoic times a considerable change in the landscape had taken place. In addition to coniferous trees, the palms appeared, and also the first of angiosperms, such as the oak, dogwood, beech, poplar, willow, sassafras and tulip tree. Species increased in numbers, adapted to all sorts of conditions; the forest in a most varied and luxuriant form climbed the mountain sides to the very crests, and covered the land to the very poles with a flora of tropical and semi-tropical species. Then came the leveling processes and other changes of post- ak ertiary or Quaternary times; the glaciation of lands in north- ern latitudes, with the consequent changes of climate, which brought about corresponding changes in the ranks of the forest, killing out many of the species around the north pole. Only the hardier races survived, and these were driven southward in a veritable rout. When these boreal times subsided in a degree, the advance of the forest was as sure as before; but the battle order was some- what changed to suit the new conditions of soil and climate. Only the hardiest tribes could regain the northernmost posts, and these found their former places of occupancy changed by fluvial and lacustrine formations and the drifts borne and depos- ited by the 1 ice-sheets, while some by their constitution were en- tirely unfitted from engaging in a northern campaign or found insurmountable barriers in the refrigerated east-west elevations of Europe and western Asia. In addition, there had come new troubles from volcanic erup- 130 B. HE. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. tions, which continually wrested the reconquered ground from the persistent advance guards of the arboreal army, annihilating them again and again. : Finally, when the more settled geologic and climatic condi- tions of the present era arrived and the sun arose over a world ready for human habitation, man found what we are pleased to call the virgin forest—a product of long continued evolutionary changes—occupying most, 1f not all the dry land, and ever intent upon extending its realm. This prehistoric review of the battle of the forest cannot be left without giving some historic evidences of its truth. Not only have paleobotanists unearthed the remnants of the circumpolar flora, which give evidence that it resembled that of present tropic and semi-tropic composition, but they have also shown that sequoias, magnolias, liquidambars and hickories ex- isted in Europe and on our own continent in regions where they are now extinct. We have also evidences of the repeated suc- cesses and reverses of the forest in its attempts to establish itself through long geologic transformations. One of the most interesting evidences of these vicissitudes in the battle of the forest is represented in a section of Amethyst mountain in Yellowstone National Park, exhibiting the remains of fifteen forest-growths, one above the other, buried in the lava. Again and again the forest subdued the inhospitable excoria- tions; again and again it had to yield to superior force. Among these petrified witnesses of former forest glory, mag- nolia, oak, tulip tree, sassafras, inden and ash have been iden- tified, accompanying the sequoia in regions where now only the hardiest conifer growths of pines and spruces find a congenial climate. As the forest formed and spread thus during the course of ages, so does it form and spread: today, unless man, driven by the increasing needs of existence, checks its progress and reduces its area by the cultivation of the soil. This natural extension of the forest cover or afforestation takes place readily wherever soil and climate is favorable, but it is accomplished just as surely, though infinitely slower, in unfavorable situations. On the naked rock, the coarse detritus and gravel beds, on the purely siliceous sand deposits of river and ocean, or in the hot dry plains, the preliminary pioneer work of the lower vegetation is required. Algze, lichens, mosses, grasses, herbs and shrubs must ‘ The Army of Pioneers. 13 precede to cultivate the naked rock, to mellow the rough gravel beds, to make the soil, to increase the soil moisture by shading the ground and gradually render it fit for the abode of the forest monarch. The army of soil-makers and goil-breakers, the pioneers, as it were, of the forest, are a hard y race, making leas demands for their support than those that follow. They come from different tribes, according to the soil conditions in which they have to battle. As soon as they have established them- selves they begin their cultivatory activity, which consists in withdrawing from the rock or soil and from the air the nutritive elements, returning them to the soil when they die and decay, in a form much more suitable for the support of the higher plants. The nutritive elements and the physical properties of the soil are improved and augmented by the repeated growth and decay of these pioneers, in that the soil is deepened and made mellow and its capacity for moisture increased. The waters charged with carbonic acid derived from the decay of the vegetal humus hasten the decomposition of the underlying rock, and the fertile soil layers increase until more fastidious plants can subsist. The humblest workers, alge, lichens, cacti and mosses, are followed by sedges, dry grasses, herbs and shrubs, or in the drier climates by agaves and yuccas. Then come the succulent grasses and herbs, gradually covering the soil with a meadow or prairie, the shrubs become more numerous, by degrees closing up, shading the ground and overshadowing the grasses, and finally the time is ripe for the arborescent flora. Nor does then the forest appear at once in its fullness and variety of form. Single trees, stragglers or skirmishers in small numbers, and shrub-like and stunted forms first arrive, gradually increasing in number and improving in form. These by their shade and by the litter formed from the fall and decay of their foliage im- prove the soil for their betters to follow. The aspen (Populus tremyloides) is one of these forerunners, which, thanks to its prolific production of light feathery seed, is readily wafted by the winds over hundreds of miles, readily germinates and rapidly grows under exposure to full sunlight, and even now in the Rocky mountains and elsewhere quickly takes possession of the areas which man has ruthlessly destroyed by fire. This humble and ubiquitous but otherwise almost use- less tree is nature’s restorative, covering the sores and secalds of the burnt mountain side, the balm poured upon grievous wounds. 132 B. EH. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. Though short-lived, with its light summer foliage turning into brilliant golden autumn hues, it gives grateful shade and pre- serves from the thirsty sun and wind some moisture, so that the better kinds may thrive and take its place when it has fulfilled its mission. One of the shrubs or half trees which first take possession of the soil in the western mountain country is the socalled mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) covering the bared slopes after the fire has killed the old timber. In other regions, as on the prairies of Iowa and Illinois, hazel bushes; or in the mountains of Pennsylvania and the Alle- ehenies in general, ericaceous shrubs like the laurel and rhodo- dendrons or hawthorn, viburnum and wild cherry are the first comers, while along water-courses alders and willows crowd even the water into narrower channels, catching the soil which is washed from the hillsides and increasing the land area. One of the most interesting soil-makers, wresting new territory from the ocean itself, is the mangrove along the coast of Florida. Not only does it reach out with its aerial roots entangling in their meshes whatever litter may float about and thus gradually building up the shore, but it pitches even its young brood into the advance of the battle, to wrestle with the waves and gain a foothold as best it may. Not less interesting in this respect is that denizen of the southern swamp, the bald cypress with its curious root excres- cences known as cypress knees, which, whatever their physiologic significance, are most helpful in expediting change of water into land sufficiently dry to be capable of supporting the more fastidious species in regard to moisture conditions. In passing, the remarkable adaptation to diverse conditions of some of the tree species should be noticed, as it gives them significance as geographic factors. The trees of the swamp, or at least many of them, seem to indicate their independence of moisture conditions by the range of climate and soil in which they are found. In fact, they grow in the swamp, not because that is their most suitable locality, but because they can do so to the exclusion of other competitors. The bald cypress itself will grow in the dry soil and arid atmosphere of Texas and Mexico; the oak which associate with it in the swamp will oc- cupy almost any soil.-and site; the sweet gum or liquidambar is found in similar places of habitat. The juniper or red cedar, ee The Habitat of the Juniper. 183 which is a large tree in the swamps of Florida, covers also the driest ridges of the eastern Rocky mountains, with a enarly growth and hard texture, supplying the most lasting poles and posts. This latter species is also noticeable as having the widest distribution of all American forest trees. In fact, few trees seem so indifferent to climatic and soil conditions. From semi-tropical Florida to the cold shores of New Brunswick, and from the humid Atlantic coast it crosses the continent and the snow-covered Rockies to British Columbia and Washington.* It associates as well with the oak, hickory and magnolia in the rich river hot- toms, or with the cypress, ash and tupelo in the swamps, as with the pine on the hot sands and barren mountain sides. ‘Thanks to the taste of the birds for its berries, it finds ready dissemina- tion within this wide field, forming with the equally frugal aspen and cottonwood the very foremost advance guard of the forest. On the dry hot mesas and in the arroyos of tlte southwestern tier of our states and territories we meet a different set of skir- mishers following up the huge cacti and agaves, which together with the tree yuccas, penetrate into the very desert. In these re- gions the mesquite or algaroba and others of the acacia tribe form the second phalanx, as it were, gradually advancing their lines in spite of adverse conditions. In other regions the pine, satisfied with but scanty favor of soil moisture, and the spruce, able to sustain life in shallow soil, and the fir, in the higher, colder and wetter elevations, sometimes much stunted, form the skirmish line. These improve the soil in its moisture conditions by their shade, and by the foliage and litter falling and decay- ing they deepen the soil, forming a humus cover. The duff that is found covering the rocky subsoil of the Adirondacks is formed in this way at the rate of about one foot in 500 years. They are soon followed by the birche, maple, elm and ash and in moister situations by the oak—first, that hardy pioneer, the black oak tribe, and then the more fastidious white oak, with whom the slower but persistent hickories, beeches and other shade-endur- ing species begin to quarrel for the right of occupancy of the ground, until the battle is no longer that of the forest against the elements and lower vegetation, but between the mighty con- querors themselves. This struggle we can see going on in our primeval forests, wind-storms and decay acting as allies now to * According to some authorities the juniper found beyond the Rocky mountains does not include this particular species, Juniperus virginiand, 13 B. E. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. one, now to the other side, and thus changing the balance of power again and again. In this struggle for supremacy between the different arbores- cent species the competition is less for the soil than for the light, the most important factor of life, especially for tree-growth. It is under the influence of light that foliage develops and that leaves exercise their functions and feed the tree by assimilating the carbon of the air and transpiring the water from the soil. The more foliage and the more light a tree has at its disposal, the more vigorously it will grow and spread itself. Now the spreading oak or beech of the open field finds close neighbors in the forest, and is narrowed in from all sides and forced to lengthen its shaft, to elevate its crown, to reach up for light, if it would escape being overshadowed, repressed and per- haps finally killed by more powerful densely foliaged compet- itors. ; The various species are differently endowed as regards the amount of light which they need for their existence. Go into the dense forest and see what kinds of trees are vegetating in the dense shade of the older trees, and then go into an opening re- cently made, an abandoned field or other place, where the full benefit of light is to be had by all alike, and one will find a different set altogether occupying the ground and dominating. In the first case there may be found, perhaps, beech and sugar maple or fir and spruce; in the second case aspen, poplar, wil- low, soft maple, oak or pine, tamarack, ete. All trees thrive ultimately best in full enjoyment of light. But some, like those first mentioned, can at least subsist and their — foliage functionate with a small amount—they are shade-endur- ing kinds, usually having a dense foliage, many leaves, and each one needs to do but little work—and exert considerable shade when fully developed. Those last named, however, are light- needing kinds, and having less foliage, cannot exist long without a considerable amount of light. To offset this drawback in the constitution of these latter, nature has endowed them as a rule with the capacity of rapid height growth, to escape their would-be suppressors ; but again, what they have gained in the rapidity of development they lose in the length of life. They are mostly short lived species, while the shade enduring are generally slower growers, but persistent and long lived. Some kinds, like most of the oaks, stand be- =. iM The Struggles for Existence. 135 tween the two; while exhibiting a remarkable capacity of vege- tating in the shade, they are really light-needing species but comparatively slow growers and long lived. One and the same species behaves also somewhat differently under different soil and climatic conditions; for instance, as a rule the light-needing species can endure more shade on moist soils and the shade enduring require more light on drier soils. In the earliest stages of life the little seedlings of most trees require partial shade and are quite sensitive in regard to light conditions. Some have such a small range of light and shade endurance that, while there may be millions of little seedlings sprouted, they will all perish if some of the mother trees are not removed and more light given; and they will perish equally if the old growth is removed too suddenly and the delicate leaf structure, under the influence of direct sunlight, is made to ex- ercise its functions beyond its capacity. Left to itself, as the forest grows up and as the individual trees develop, each trying to hold its ground and struggling for light, a natural thinning takes place, some trees lagging behind in growth and being shaded out, until in old age only as many trees remain as can occupy the ground without incommoding each other. This struggle among the individuals goes on during their en- tire life. Some few shoot ahead, perhaps because of a stronger constitution or some favorable external cause, and overtower their neighbors. These, lagging behind, fall more and more under the shading influence of their stronger neighbors until entirely suppressed, when they only vegetate until they die. The struggle continues, however, among the dominant class and it neverends. For as Hercules the unconquerable succumbed to the poison that penetrated to his bones, so does the mighty giant of the forest fall a prey to the insidious work of rot and fungus and insects. When its heart is riddled and weakened, first the dry branches crumble and gradually give opportunity for the young aftergrowth of shade-enduring kinds, patiently waiting for light, to strengthen; then break the large limbs and the dry top, and after having weathered the onslaught of the storms for centuries and the euerillas of the fungus tribe for decades, finally the giant falls, with its decaying substance enriching the soil for future generations. Into the breach rush the young epigones, each struggling to supplant its progenitor. 19—Nar. Groac. Maa., von. VI, 1894. 136 B. Lt. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. Thus the alterations of forest-growth take place, oak following pine or pine following oak; the poplar, birch and cherry appear- ing on the sunny burns, or the hickory, beech and maple creep- ing into the shadier pine growths. While in the eastern forest under naturai conditions the rotation of power is accomplished in at least from 300 to 500 years, the old monarchs of the Pacific, towering above all competitors, have held sway 2,000 or more years. In this warfare, with changes in climatic and soil con- ditions going on at the same time, it may well occur that a whole race may even be exterminated. I have dwelt thus long upon the formative period of the forest in order to make you realize that the virgin forest is a product of long struggles, extending over centuries, nay, thousands of years. Some of the mightiest representatives of old families, which at one time of prehistoric date were powerful, still survive, but are gradually succumbing to their fate in our era. The largest of our eastern forest trees, reaching a height of 140 feet and diameters up to 12 feet, the most beautiful and one of the most useful, the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), is a survivor of an early era once widely distributed, but now con- fined to eastern North America, and doomed to vanish soon from our woods through man’s improper partisanship. Others, like the TYorreya and Cupressus, seem to haye suc- cumbed to a natural decadence, if we may judge from their confined limits of distribution. So, too, the colossal sequoias, remnants of an age when things generally were of larger size than now, appear to be near the end of their reign, while the mighty taxodium or bald cypress, the big tree of the east, still seems vigorous and prosperous, being able to live with wet feet without harm to its constitution, weird with the gray tillandsia or Spanish moss. Having thus scanned through the traditions of unwritten his- tory of the battle of the forest, having seen some of the com- batants in the struggle and learned something of their methods of conquering the earth and each other, we may take a look at the condition of things on the North American continent as it presumably was in the beginning of historic times or within our century. As far as occupancy of the soil by the forest is concerned, we find that the struggle had not yet been determined in its fayor The Afforestation of the desert Areas. 137 everywhere. While a vast territory on the Atlantic side and a narrower belt on the Pacific toast, connected by a broad belt through the northern latitudes, was almost entirely under its undisputed sway, and while the back-bone of the continent, the crest and slopes of the Rocky mountains, was more or less in its possession, there still remained a vast empire in the interior unconquered. Of parts of this territory we feel reasonably certain from strong evidences that the forest once occupied them, but has been driven off by aboriginal man, the firebrand taking sides with the grasses and the buffalo probably being a potent element in preventing reestablishment. In other parts it is questionable whether the lines along the river courses, the straggling trees on the plateaus and slopes, are remnants of a vanquished army or outposts of an advancing one. Insome parts, like the dry mesas, plateaus and arroyos of the interior basin, and the desert-like valleys toward the southern frontiers, it may reasonably be doubted whether arborescent flora has more than begun its slow advance from the outskirts of the established territory. Certain it is that climatic conditions in these forestless regions are most unfavorable to tree-growth, and it may well be ques- tioned whether in some parts the odds are not entirely against the progress of the forest. Temperature and moisture conditions of air and soil, determine ultimately the character of vegetation, and these are dependent not only on latitude, but largely on configuration of the land, and especially on the direction of moisture-bearing winds with reference to the trend of mountains. The winds from the Pacific ocean striking against the Coast range are forced by the compression and subsequent cooling to give up much of their moistuge on the windward side; a second impact and further condensation of the moisture takes place on the Cascade range and Sierra Nevada. On descending, with consequent expansion, the wind becomes warmer and drier, so that the interior basin, without additional sources of moisture and no additional cause for condensation, is left without much rainfall and with a very low relative humidity, namely, below 50 per cent. “The Rocky mountains finally squeeze out whatever moisture remains in the air currents, which arrive proportionally drier on the eastern slope. This dry condition extends over the plains until the moist currents from the gulf of Mexico modify 138 B. E. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. it. Somewhat corresponding, yet not quite, to this distribution of moisture, the western slopes are found to be better wooded than the eastern, and the greater difficulty of establishing < forest cover here must be admitted; yet since the forest has the capacity of creating its own conditions of existence by increasing the most important factor of its life, the relative humidity, the extension of the Same may only be a question of time. Temperature extremes, to be sure, also set a limit to tree- growth, and hence the socalled timber line of high mountains, which changes in altitude according to the latitude. If, now, we turn our attention from the phyto-topographic - consideration of the forest cover to the phyto-geographic and botanical features, we may claim that the North American forest, with 425 or more arborescent species, belonging to 158 genera, many of which are truly endemic, surpasses in variety of useful species and magnificent development, any other forest of the tem- perate zone, Japan hardly excepted. In addition there are prob- ably nowhere to be seen such extensive fields of distribution of single species. These two facts are probably explained by the north-and- south direction of the mountain ranges, which permitted a rees- tablishment after the Ice age of many species farther northward, while in Europe and the main part of Asia the east-west direc- tion of the mountains offered an effectual barrier to such rees- tablishment, and reduced the number of species and their field of distribution ; nor are the climatic differences of different lati- tudes in North America as great as in Europe, which again predicates greater extent in the fields of distribution north and south. On the other hand, the differences east and west in floral composition of the American forest are greater than if an ocean had separated the two parts instead of the prairie and plains. This fact would militate against our theory that the intermediate forestless region was or would be eventually forested with species from both the established forest regions, if we did not find some species represented in both regions and a junction of the two floras in the very region of the forestless areas. In the sand hills which traverse Nebraska from east to west there are now found in eastern counties the sand-drowned trunks of the western bull pine, and the same pine belonging to the Pacific flora is found associated with the black walnut of the eastern region along the Niobrara river. NAT. GEOG. MAG. VOE: V1; 1894. PENS: is © e JES if ra) iS 7 rs a Vas ice eee , WINN S ae Ce, VY 8 \ Wah NY \ x 9 MAP. SHOWING THE NATURAL DIVISIONS = OF THE>-- NORTHAMBRICAN FORESTS LACLUSIVE OF MEXICO Subdivisions of the North American Forest. 139 We may, however, divide the North American forest, according to its botanical features, into two great forest regions, namely, the Atlantic, which is in the main characterized by broad-leaved trees, and the Pacific, which is made up almost wholly of conif- erous species. (See plate 8.) In the Atlantic forest we can again discern several floral sub- divisions, each of which shows special characteristics. The southernmost coast and keys of Florida, although several decrees north of the geographic limit of the tropics, present a truly trop- ical forest, rich in species of the West Indian flora, which here finds its most northern extension. There is no good reason for calling this outpost sem-tropical, as is done on Sargent’s map. With the mahogany, the mastic, the royal palm, the mangrove, the sea grape and some sixty more West Indian species repre- sented, it is tropical in all but it geographic position. That the northern flora joins the tropic forest here, and thus brings to- gether on this insignificant spot some hundred species, nearly one-quarter of all the species found in the Atlantic forest, does not detract from its tropical character. On the other hand, the forest north of this region may be ealled subtropical, for here the live and water oak, the magnolia, the bay tree and holly and many other broad-leaved trees are mixed with the sabal and dwarf palmetto. As they retain their green foliage throughout the winter, this region is truly semi-_ tropical in character, and under the influence of the Gulf stream, extends in a narrow belt some 20 or 25 miles in width along the coast as far north as North Carolina. While this evergreen, broad-leaved forest is more or less con- fined to the rich hummocks and moister situations, the poor sandy soils of this as well as of the more northern region are occupied by pines; and as those, especially the long-leaf pine, are celebrated all over the world and give the great mercantile sig- nificance to these forests, this region may well be called the ereat southern pine belt. North of the evergreen subtropic forest stretches the vast deciduous-leaved forest of the Atlantic, nowhere equaled in the temperate regions of the world in extent and perfection of form, and hardly in the number of species. This designation applies to the entire area up to the northern forest belt, for the region segregated on the census map as the northern pine belt is still in the main the dominion of the deciduous-leaved forest. On certain areas pines and spruces 140 B. E. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. are intermixed, and on certain soils, especially gravelly drifts and dry sand plains, as on the pine barrens of northern Michi- gan, they congregate even to the exclusion of other species. Instead, we can divide this deciduous-leaved forest by a line running somewhere below the fortieth degree of latitude, where with the northern limits of the southern magnolias and other species we may locate in general the northern limit of the south- ern forest flora. Northward from here, in what may be called the “ middle Atlantic forest,” the deciduous species rapidly de- crease and the coniferous growth predominates until we arrive at the broad belt of the northern forest, which, crossing from the Atlantic to the Pacific and composed of only eight hardy species, takes its stand against the frigid breath and icy hands of Boreas. Abounding in streams, lakes and swampy areas, the low divides of this region are occupied by an open stunted forest of black and white spruce, while the bottoms are held by the balsam fir, larch or tamarack, poplar, dwarf birch and willow. The white spruce, paper or canoe birch, balsam, poplar and aspen stretch their lines from the Atlantic to the Pacific over the whole continent. On the Pacific side the subdivisions are rather ranked from west to east. While the northern forest battles against the cold blasts from icy fields, the front of the Pacific interior forest is wrestling with the dry atmosphere of the plains and interior basin. Here on the driest parts, where the sage brush finds its home, the ponderous bull pine is the foremost fighter, and where even this hardy tree cannot succeed in the interior basin several species of red cedar hold the fort, in company with the nut pine, covering with an open growth the mesas and lower mountain slopes. Small and stunted, although of immense age, these valiant outposts show the marks of severe struggles for existence. On the higher and therefore moister and cooler elevations and in the narrow canyons, where evaporation is diminished and the soil is fresher, the somber Douglas, Engelmann and blue spruce and the silver-foliaged white fir join the pines or take their place. With few exceptions the same species, only of better develop- ment, are found in the second parallel, which occupies the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Additional forces here strengthen the ranks, the great sugar pine, two noble firs, a mighty larch, hemlocks and cedars vie with their leaders, the The Flora of the Pacifie Coast. 141 big sequoias, in showing of what metal they are made. The third parallel, occupied by the forest of the Coast Range, the most wonderfully developed, although far from being the most varied of this continent, is commanded by the redwood, with the tide-land spruce, hemlock and gigantic arborvite joining the ranks. Broad-leaved trees are not absent, but so little developed in comparison with the mighty conifers that they play no conspic- uous part except along the river bottoms, where the maple, cotton, wood, ash and alder thrive, and in the narrow interior valleys. where an open growth of oak is found. Toward the south and on the lower levels these broad-leaved trees again become ever- green, as on the Atlantic side, but of different tribes, and form a subtropic flora. - Along the coast we find several species of true cypress, in- cluding the well known although rare Monterey cypress which clings to the gigantic rocks and braves the briny ocean winds, and with its branches twisted landward. Finally, flanking the battle order of the Pacific forest, we find another section of the army, composed of the northern extension of the Mexican flora- mingled with which are species from the Pacific forest on the west and from the Atlantic on the east. The mesquite and some acacias, the tree yuccas and the giant or tree cactus are perhaps the most characteristic and remark- *able species of the deserts of this region, while the high moun- tains support dense forests of firs and pines. So far we have considered the forest only from the geographic and botanical point of view,.and have watched the history of its struggle for existence against the elements and against the lower vegetation and other forces of nature. A new chapter of its life history, which we shall have time only to scan very briefly, began when man came upon the scene and the economic point of view had to be considered. For ages man has taken sides against the forest. Not only has he contested for the occupancy of the soil, in order to cultivate his crops or to make the meadow for his cattle—a most legitimate and justifiable proceeding,—and not only has he utilized the vast stores of wood accumulated through centuries, for the ten thou- ‘sand uses to which this material can be applied, and in the ap- plication of which he exhibits his superior intelligence, but he 142 B. BE. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. has also shown a woeful lack of intelligence in the willful or careless destruction of the forest without justifiable cause, and by just so much curtailing the bountiful stores provided by nature for him and his progeny. Not only has he, like a spend- thrift, wasted his stores of useful material, but more—he has wasted the work of nature through thousands of years by the foolish destruction of the forest cover, wresting from it the toil- somely achieved victory over the soil. He has destroyed .the grasses and even all vestige of vegetation, and has handed over the naked soil to the action of wind and water. As the fertility and agriculture of the plain is dependent upon the regular and equable flow of water from the mountains, such as a forest cover alone can secure, he has by baring the slopes accomplished in many localities utter ruin to himself, and turned them back into inhospitable deserts as they first were before the struggle of the forest had made them inhabitable. One would hardly believe that certain mountains in France had ever seen a luxuriant forest growth, and could during historic times have been so utterly despoiled of their vegetal cover. Yet axe, fire and cattle have been most successful, and the consequences have been felt not only in the mountains, but in the valleys below. The waters in torrents have brought down the soil and débris, covering out of sight the fertile fields of thousands of toiling farmers. They themselves have brought this ruin upon them on account of their ignorance of the relation « of forest cover to their occupation. Now, with infinite hard work and expenditure of energy and money, the slow work of restoring the forest to its possessions has begun. The first work is to take care of the rain waters, and by artificial breaks turn them from rushing torrents over the bare surface into a succes- sion of gentle runs and falls by fascine and stone works. This work must be begun at the very top of the mountains, at the very source of the evil, where the water receives its first momentum in the descent to the valley. The fascines or wattles, laid across each rivulet at more or less frequent distances from each other and fastened down by heavy stones, are made of live willows or other readily sprouting species, which in course of time strike root and become living barriers. The pockets behind these breastworks gradually fill up, and the contour of the mountain side is changed from an even and rapid descent into a series of ° steps with gentle fall, over which the formerly rushing waters, Processes of Afforestation. 143 gradually and without turbulence, find their way to the valley below. Where the incline is too steep and higher breastworks are necessary, they are made of masonry, sometimes at great expense. At the base of these overflow dams an opening is left for the water to drain through, even after the depression behind the rampart has filled up with débris and soil has washed down from above. Then, when in this way the soil has come to rest, forest planting begins, and gradually the torrent is “drowned in vegetation.” Sometimes, where on a steep mountain side the naked rock alone has been left, it becomes necessary to carry in baskets the soil to the trenches hewn in the rock, where the little seedlings may take their first hold, until they are strong enough to fight their own battle and make their own soil, gradually re- storing the beneficent conditions which nature had provided before the arrival of man and his senseless, improvident, self- destructive greed. By the irrational destruction of the forest, first for the supply of timber, then through the careless use of fire, by the clearing for unsuitable farm use, by excessive grazing of sheep and goat, the mountain sides themselves are not only devastated and made useless, but fertile farms for 200 miles from the source of the evil are ruined by the deposit of the débris, and the population pauperized and driven from their homes. Many millions of dollars have been and many more will have to be spent before these regions become habitable again. On plate 7 are shown various views of these processes of afforestation as now practiced in France. That we are working in this country toward the same condi- tions is too well known to need rehearsal. Go to the shores of lake Michigan or visit the coast of New England, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, down to the Gulf, and you can see the destructive action of the shifting sands set loose by improvident removal of the plant-cover. Go to the Adirondacks, the highlands of Mis- sissippi, or the eastern slopes of the Rocky mountains, and as- pects similar to those derived from France will meet your view, Thus McGree graphically describes the formation of the Mis- sissippi bad lands :** With the moral revolution of the early sixties came an industrial evo- lution; the planter was impoverished, his sons were slain, his slaves were liberated, and he was fain either to vacate the plantation or greatly to *In a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Washington, in 1891 (not printed). 20—Nart. Geog. Maa., von. VI, 1894. 144 B. E. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. restrict his operations. So the cultivated acres were abandoned by thou- sands. Then the hills, no longer protected by the forest foliage, no longer bound by the forest roots, no longer guarded by the bark and brush dam of the careful overseer, were attacked by raindrops and rain-born rivulets and gullied and channeled in all directions; each streamlet reached a hundred arms into the hills, each arm grasped with a hundred fingers a hundred shreds of soil, and as each shred was torn away the slope was steepened and the theft of the next storm made easier. So, storm by storm and year by year, the old fields were invaded by gullies, gorges, ravines and gulches, ever increasing in width and depth until whole hillsides were carved away, until the soil of a thousand years’ growth melted into the streams, until the fair acres of ante-bellum days were converted by hundreds into bad lands, desolate and dreary as those of the Dakotas. Over much of the upland the traveler is never out of sight of glaring sand wastes where once were fruitful fields; his way lies sometimes in, sometimes between, gullies and gorges, the “‘gulfs” of the blacks whose superstitions they arouse, sometimes shadowed by foliage, but oftener exposed to the glare of the sun reflected from barren sands. Here the road winds through a gorge so steep that the sunlight scarcely enters; there it traverses a narrow crest of earth between the chasms, scores of feet deep, in which he might be plunged by a single misstep. When the shower comes he may see the roadway rendered impassable, even obliterated, within a few minutes; always sees the fall- ing waters accumulate as viscid brown or red mud torrents, while the myriad miniature pinnacles and defiles before him are transformed by the beating raindrops and rushing rills so completely, that when the sun shines again he may not recognize the nearer landscape. This destruction is not confined to a single field or a single region, but extends over much of the upland. While the actual acreage of soil thus destroyed has not been measured, the traveler through the region on horseback daily sees thousands or tens of thousands of formerly fertile acres now barren sands; and it is probably within the truth to estimate that 10 per cent of upland Mississippi has been so far converted into bad lands as to be practically ruined for agriculture under existing commercial conditions, and that the annual loss in real estate exceeds the revenues from all sources; and all this hayoc has been Wrought within a quarter century. The processes, too, are cumulative ; each year’s rate of destruc- tion is higher than the last. The transformation of the fertile hills into sand wastes is not the sole injury. The sandy soil is carried into the valleys to bury the fields, in- vade the roadways, and convert the formerly rich bottom lands into treacherous quicksands when wet and blistering deserts when dry. Hun- dreds of thousands of acres have thus been destroyed since the gullying of hills began a quarter of a century ago. Moreover, in much of the up- lands the loss is not alone that of the soil, 7. e., the humus representing the constructive product of water work and plant work for thousands of years; but the mantle of brown loam, most excellent of soil stuffs, is cut through and carried away by corrasion and sapping, leaving in its stead Economic Value of Species. 145 the inferior soil stuff of the Lafayette formation. In such eases the de- struction is irremediable by human craft—the fine loam once removed can never be restored. The area from which this loam is already gone is appalling, and the rate of loss is increasing in a geometric proportion. What the farmer has brought upon himself here by excessive clearing, the lumberer, prospector, miner or hunter prepares in the farther west by reckless and purposeless use of fire. Burnt mountain sides, where no living thing can subsist in comfort, cover not acres but hundreds of square miles in the western country. While the first fire only deadens the trees or under- mines their constitution, the second or third fire usually is suf- ficient to kill what remain alive and even to clean up the fallen timber. That these bald spots are not more frequent than they are is only due to the short period of our endeavors in disturb- ing the balance of nature. But as our nation prides itself on the rapidity of its develop- ment, exercising to the utmost our constructive energies, so do we excel in destructive and wasteful energies and tendencies, and we shall come to grief with our resources much sooner than some of our happy-go-lucky friends would like to make us believe. While these exhibitions of American vandalism are beyond the proprieties of legitimate warfare, there is not much more propriety or intelligence visible in the manner in which we levy tribute from the forest for our legitimate needs. Forests grow to be used, but there is a great difference between intelligent and unintelligent use. Improvidence and ignorance characterize the present methods of using the forest-growth. The value of it is not even known. Of the 425 or more species which are represented in the forests, not more than 40 or 50 at the most are found in the markets. Although, to be sure, many of the species are of but little or of no economic value, the number of the truly useful trees is prob- ably twice or three times as great as that actually used. Igno- rance as to the true value of them keeps many from little more than simply a strictly local use or from their most fit employ- ment. The story of the black walnut used for fence rails or fire- wood is well known. Six yearsago the red gum or liquidambar, now a fashionable finishing material, was despised. Ten years ago large hemlock trees were mouldering in the woods after the bark had been taken for tanning purposes because the value of the wood was unknown. Cypress and Douglas spruce cannot yet overcome the prejudice of the market. On the other hand, cot- 146 B. EB. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. tonwood and tulip poplar, not long ago among the despised or only locally used, can hardly now be furnished in sufficient quantities, and the long-leaf pine, which had been bled for tur- pentine, was considered an inferior material, which, as has lately been shown, is nothing but an unwarranted prejudice. In a vague empirical way the choice of the useful has been attempted and only lately have we begun to systematically study our forest resources, to determine the qualities and adaptabilities of our timbers, and to find out the conditions under which they produce not only the largest amount but the best quality of timber. Yet in another direction do the forest users act unintelli- gently. As we have seen, most of our forest trees are of a so- cial character. With few exceptions, they keep. company with other kinds than their own; they appear in mixed forests. Hence, except where certain species as the pines and spruces become gregarious and form unmixed, pure forests, the axe of the lumberer does not as a rule level the entire forest, but he selects the kinds which he wishes to use—he culls the forest. At first sight this would appear rather an advantage for the existence of the forest. So it is from a botanical, geographic or landscape point of view, yet from an economic point it is exactly the reverse—it is disastrous. This can be readily understood if we recall our story of the battle of the forest monarchs among themselves, the struggle which each species sustains to occupy the ground. Man taking sides in the struggle by culling the best, the most useful, decides the battle for the least deserving, leaving the advantage to the scrubs and inferior tribes; and since these are left to overshadow the ground and to spread their own brood over the open spaces, the culled forest, while still a forest to the casual observer, has lost its economic value not only for the present, but for the future also, for it prevents the reproduction of the better kinds. The intelligent forester also acts as a partisan; he also uses the axe, but to better purpose. Before he utilizes the kinds for which he wishes to perpetuate the forest, he culls the inferior and leaves the superior—i. ¢., the most useful races; he gives direction and assists the most fit in the struggle for supremacy ; he substitutes artificial for natural selection, assuring the pro- tected survival of the most useful; he hastens the decision of the struggle by obviating, if possible, useless expenditure of German Method of Forest Management. 147 energy by timely interference, thereby securing not only a larger total and more valuable product for the present, but a repro- duction of only the best kinds for the future. In the well managed forests of Germany the undeserving spe- cies are exterminated and the most useful fostered, just as the agriculturist exterminates the weeds and cultivates the crop. Not only is the forest there confined to those soils and locations which cannot be used to better advantage or which require a forest cover in order to protect the soil against detrimental dis- Figure 1.—A German spruce Forest under management. placement, but it is so managed as to become a more and more raluable resource, a crop of increasing importance, under the management of skilled foresters, of whom, in a late debate on the floor of the Landtag of Prussia, it was said that “ While most other productive business has declined, the forest administration has steadily improved and yielded increasing revenues.” In fig- ure 1 is shown one of these protected German forests of spruce, as they grow, not planted, but naturally regenerated by skillful management and use of the axe. 148 B. E. Fernow—The Battle of the Forest. The battle of the forest in this country is now fought by man, the unintelligent and greedy carrying on a war of extermination, without the knowledge that their victory may lead eventually to their own destitution ; the intelligent and provident trying to defend the forest cover and endeavoring to prevent its removal from such lands as cannot serve a better purpose, and to restrict the use of the balance to such rational harvest of its material, without injurious effects on soil and water conditions, as will insure an ever reproducing crop and a permanent national re- source. While man may study the geography of the earth as it exists, here is about the only opportunity for him to make geography, to shape the surface conditions of the earth, and even to some extent influence its climatic conditions. > Stil « on ll oe ~~ ~~ a '