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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOLUME 45, 1955
BOARD OF EDITORS
R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE, JR.
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ASSOCIATE EDITORS
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JOURNAL
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 45
January 1955
No. 1
PALEONTOLOGY .—NVew genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower Car- boniferous. RopeRt H. Cummines, University of Glasgow, Scotland. (Com- municated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)
As part of a study of the British Carbonif- erous Foraminifera a revision of the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera in the British Museum (Natural History) has been completed. One of the most important results has been the recognition of new genera and species that not only are of stratigraphical value but also assist in the interpretation of the mor- phogeny and phylogeny of the Upper Paleo- zoic Foraminifera. Since some aspects of the major study are incomplete as yet and in order that the information on the new genera may be made available to other workers, a detailed description of three new genera and their type species are given here.
It is interesting to note that no closely similar forms have been recorded from the American Mississippian, and it is hoped that this publication will lead others to confirm their presence or absence in extra-British areas.
The writer would like to acknowledge the continued support of Prof. Neville George in this research and the valued co- operation and assistance from Dr. Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr., Dr. Helen Tappan, and other American experts and friends.
Family ENDOTHYRIDAE
Subfamily BrRaDYININAE
ENDOTHYRANOPSIS, n. gen.
Involutina (pars) Brady, 1869 (non Terquem, 1862). Endothyra (pars) Brady, 1873, 1876, et auctores.
Type species (here designated): Involutina crassa Brady, 1869.
Description.—Test free, relatively large, sub- globular to nautiloid; coiled with a slight degree
of axial rotation and hence somewhat asym- metrical; relatively few whorls and moderate number of crescentiform chambers; almost or entirely involute with simple, slight sutures and rounded peripheral margin; granular surface; wall of granules of calcite bound by calcareous cement with small but varying proportion of adventitious material; apertural face inflated with low, lunate opening at base.
Comparison and affinities—The genus Endo- thyranopsis differs from members of the Endo- thyrinae in several features. In the latter the wall is composed solely of granules of calcite bound by calcareous cement and is imperforate whilst, in the case of the new genus, the wall is not only relatively thicker and typically perforate but has a varying subordinate quantity of ad- ventitious material, usually in the form of quartz- grains and iron oxides. Other and more minor differences are to be found in the mode of coiling, number and form of chambers, and possibly in septal construction.
The inclusion of Hndothyranopsis within the Bradyininae is based on obvious similarities of wall-structure and form to other members of the subfamily. Morphologically the simplest and stratigraphically the oldest, Hndothyranopsis appears to occupy a near ancestral position within the group and may represent an early develop- ment toward Bradyina Moller and Cribrospira Moller from the agglutinate ancestral stock.
In the thin-sections of sagittal type, Endo- thyranopsis may be recognized by the relatively thick wall of characteristic composition, the few whorls and moderate number of chambers, the ploughsharelike or ax-shaped septal outlines, and the slight irregularity of coiling (Fig. 1, A). In transverse section it is often difficult to dis- tinguish from other members of the Bradyininae, for the strong obliquity of septal curvature in
y, JOURNAL OF THE
B C
Fig. 1.—Endothyranopsis sp. Diagrams based on actual specimens showing typical appearance in thin-section: A, sagittal section; B, transverse section showing apparent lateral chamberlets due to septal curvature and axial rotation; C, oblique excentric tangential section. All x 35.
Endothyranopsis may produce apparent lateral chamberlets in the umbilical region (Fig. 1, B) that appear identical to the sutural chamberlets of Bradyina when seen in the same section. How- ever, other morphological differences, such as the presence of axial rotation of coiling in Endo- thyranopsis in contrast to the planispiral coiling of Bradyina, allow a distinction to be made in most cases.
Preservation matrix.—While the true nature of the wall structure is clearly demonstra- ble in well-preserved material, the large number of specimens that have undergone secondary alteration during the diagenesis of the host sedi- ment have led to confusion in the past. The perforate nature of the wall was noted by Méller (1878, p. 94), and though examples have been found in British material these are few in number. It would appear that one of the first stages in the alteration of the wall leads to the recrystallization of the caleareous matrix within the perforations and the production of granular calcite of similar texture of that of the primary wall. Hence an
and
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1 apparently uniform development of calcite results that is superficially identical to that of the primary wall structure of the Endothyrinae.
Quartz grains and fragments of several oxides of iron are the dominant types of adventitious material, and it may be that the nature of the environment determines the choice. Thus iron oxides are rather common in specimens from a host rock with a high iron content. Such evidence is by no means conclusive, however, for the factor of secondary iron enrichment in both sediment and specimen must not be overlooked.
The distinction between quartz-grains of the
primary wall-structure and crystalline quartz | introduced by partial silicifieation during di- |
agenesis is difficult and is possible only after study of both specimen and host sediment. Rarely perfect steinkerns of silica are produced (Fig. 5, C) which are valuable in the analysis of internal morphology.
Horizon and facies —Endothyranopsis is a com- mon and characteristic genus occurring in a wide
variety of limestone and calcareous shale en- | vironments in the upper part of the British Lower | Carboniferous. It has been recorded, as Endo- |
thyra crassa Brady, at similar horizons in Belgium, central Europe, and the U.S.S.R.
In addition to the type species the following may be referred to Endothyranopsis: Endothyra conspicua Howchin, 1888; Hndothyra crassa var.
compressa Rauser-Chernoussova and Reitlinger, | sphaerica |
1936; and Endothyra crassa var. Rauser-Chernoussova and Reitlinger, 1936.
A B
Fie. 2.—Loeblichia sp. Diagrams based on actual specimens showing typical appearance in thin-section: A, sagittal section slightly excentric with variation in wall thickness due to distortion of specimen; B, axial section showing position of septa in some whorls. Both X 75.
|
JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS:
Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady) Fig. 5, A-C
Involutina crassa (pars) Brady, 1869. Endothyra crassa (pars) Brady, 1876, et auctores.
Description—Test free, relatively large, nautiloid, subglobular, slightly asymmetrical; some degree of axial rotation of coiling resulting in rather small, shallow umbilical depression on one side and involute condition on other; usually three whorls present, increasing moderately in height as added and almost complete embrace- ment throughout; proloculum varies from 0.02 to 0.05 mm in diameter; 28 to 35 chambers in com- plete test and 10 in final whorl; chambers erescentiform with maximum width on median plane and tapering toward umbilical regions, having squarish outline in median section and with no marked inflation; somewhat incon- spicuous slightly depressed sutures, crenulated in parts and losing identity toward umbilici; radially aligned septa varying in shape from periphery to umbilici having a maximum thick- ness about one-third that of adjacent chambers; septal tunnel some one-third height of adjacent chambers; peripheral margin broadly and smoothly rounded with faint lobulation; surface rugose or granular; wall of granules of calcite bound by calcareous cement with a varying amount of adventitious material, usually quartz grains and more rarely oxides of iron, perforate in an irregular manner; apertural face broad, convex, slightly inflated shield with low, lunate opening at base on periphery.
Depository, etc—Lectotype (slide P. 41651) and paratypes (slide P. 35439) in the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural His- tory), from the upper part of the Lower Carbon- iferous, Great Orme’s Head, Caernarvonshire,
North Wales (ex Dr. Holl’s collection) (Brady locality no. 36).
Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum diameter 1.41 mm; minimum diameter 1.29 mm; maximum width 0.91 mm; width of apertural face 1.1 mm; height of apertural face 0.5 mm.
Comparison and affinities—The species, as redefined here on the basis of the type material, differs markedly from other forms in the British ‘Lower Carboniferous as yet undescribed and hitherto included by previous authors in
. Endothyra crassa Brady. It differs from Endo- _thyranopsis conspicuus (Howchin) in having a
NEW GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA 3
lower degree of axial rotation of coiling, a broader cross section and more tapering chambers.
Preservation and matrix.—Brady (1876, p. 97) notes the presence of small tubercles in the umbilical regions of Hndothyranopsis crassus but these appear to be remnants of the original matrix in the type material (Fig. 5, A) and products of secondary alteration in other in- stances. Probably owing to a thinner wall the last chamber of the species 1s most commonly broken away. This is so in the case of the figured lectotype (Fig. 5, B), also figured by Brady (1876, pl. 5, fig. 16).
Horizon and facies —Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady) is confined to the lower part of the Lower Limestone group in the Scottish Lower Carboniferous, being very common in the Dockra limestone and other contemporaneous limestones in the west of the Midland Valley and in the No. 2 limestone in the east. It occurs in the lower part of the Upper Dibunophyllum zone in the English Avonian. Earlier records of Endothyra crassa Brady occurring outside this stratigraphical range are based on specimens referable to the genus Endothyranopsis but not to the type species, Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady).
LOEBLICHINAE, n. subfam.
Tests characterized by small size, planispiral or subplanispiral mode of coiling and evolute condition, short axis of rotation, numerous whorls and chambers, wall of unknown primary composi- tion and structure, aperture of indistinct nature and usually terminal.
This subfamily includes the new genus Loeblichia and is probably related to the Ozawainellinae. Reasons for the recognition of this new taxonomic unit are outlined below.
LOEBLICHIA, n. gen. Endothyra (pars) Brady, 1873, 1876, et auctores.
Type species (here designated): Hndothyra ammonoides Brady, 1873.
Description—Test free, relatively small, discoidal or complanate; numerous whorls coiled in a planispiral manner though axial rotation may occur in early or late stages of growth; chambers numerous, crescentiform, regularly arranged, square to rectangular in sagittal section; sutures distinct and depressed in later portion only and internal septa normal to peripheral margin in sagittal section; periphery usually — slightly lobulate; primary structure of wall unknown—
4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON
usually preserved in recrystallized calcite, amorphous or crystalline silica; no chomata or secondary deposits present; aperture terminal, lunate opening at base of apertural face.
Comparison and affinities—The genus Loeblichia does not appear to be related to any of the contemporary Endothyrinae of the Lower Carboniferous. It differs from Endothyra Brown, 1843, Endothyra Phillips, 1846, Plectogyra Zeller, 1950, and Mullerella Thompson, 1942, in the structure of the wall, the manner of coiling, and the chamberal arrangement.
Certain morphological similarities exist be- tween Loeblichia and Nanicella Henbest, 1935, originally described from the Devonian of Iowa by Thomas (1931). It is doubtful, however, whether the degree of isomorphism is sufficient to indicate a common ancestry. Indeed the con- trasting dissimilarities in number of chambers, number of whorls, rate of chamberal growth, septal form and alignment suggest an analogous rather than homologous relationship between the two genera. The same conclusions can be made in a comparison of Loeblichia and Rhenothyra Beckmann, 1950, from the Rhenish Devonian where the morphological differences are even greater.
Though Loeblichia might be considered an aberrant specialization of the Endothyrinae, as is the case of Paraendothyra Tchernysheva, 1940, both the stratigraphical and morphological evidence tells against its inclusion, and hence it is classified separately within the Loeblichinae. This may prove to be the ancestral stock from which such problematical fusulinids as Ozawa- inella Thompson, 1935, Nankinella Lee, 1933, and Nummulostegina Schubert, 907, arose.
In sagittal section Loeblichia is distinguished by the characteristically altered wall structure, the numerous whorls and chambers, the nor- mality of septal alignment to the peripheral margin, and septal form (Fig. 2, A). In transverse section the planispiral coiling, wall-structure, septal intersections, mode of chamberal growth, and absence of chomata are criteria for its distinction from both representatives of the Endothyrinae and the Ammodiscidae.
Preservation and matrix—Brady (1876, p. 95) notes that the test-wall of the type material of Endothyra ammonoides has a “compact arenace- ous texture” in thin-section, and Wood (1949, p. 239), describing the same material, writes: “When the tests are certainly recrystallized (as
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 1 for instance in the specimens of H. ammonoides figured by Brady 1876, pl. V, fig. 6) the grain size is much greater, and the specimen is less dark in transmitted light than the infilling.”’ These descriptions are inadequate, for they fail to reveal that all specimens from the type locality are secondarily silicified and that the test-wall is composed of either amorphous or crystalline silica. Examples of the latter show ‘‘a compact arenaceous texture,’ and, should this be associ- ated with an internal matrix of recrystallized calcite, as is often the case, the optical properties noted by Wood would be illustrated.
Numerous specimens of Loeblichia have been examined from both English and Scottish areas, and in every case the microstructure of the wall has been altered from its primary condition.
Often silicification of the host sediment has led—as in the case of the type material—to the production of crystalline quartz of irregular and comparatively large grain size which might be misinterpreted as a primary arenaceous ag- glutinate structure. The production of amorphous silica could be mistakenly identified as an original siliceous structure if no reference was made to the diagenesis of the host sediment. In certain Ayrshire localities replacement of the test-wall by cryptoerystalline silica of the chalcedonic variety has produced, by its fibrous structure, a superficial similarity to the hyalime perforate condition. ;
The usual mode of preservation is in second- arily recrystallized calcite though examples are known where the wall is formed by an irregular dolomitic growth. Alteration of the calcareous structure is illustrated by the absence of cement, the irregularity and relatively large size of the constituent particles and the arrangement of the particles in relation to septal form (Fig. 3).
Except in a few cases the products of altera- tion differ in the test-wall and the matrix, indi- cating a difference in original composition or physical structure or both between the test and | the host sediment.
This proneness to alteration in Loeblichia, seen in numerous specimens from a variety of limestone and calcareous shale environments, is in direct contrast to the resistance to alteration shown by the Lower Carboniferous Endothyrinae, e.g., in EHndothyra, Plectogyra, or Mullerella. While examples of alteration are not unknown and are not uncommon in some areas, owing to local diagenetic phenomena, the permanence of
JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS: microstructure in the Endothyrinae is demon- strable in several ways; by the regularity of fine grain size in wall texture over wide areas and in a variety of facies, or again, by the maintenance of layering within the wall to the same propor- tions in each particular group. Many examples have been noted where altered specimens of Loeblichia occur, in the same sample, alongside unaltered members of the Endothyrinae. Hence the wall-structure of Loeblichia, in its original condition, must differ fundamentally from that of the Endothyrinae. It is for this reason that the new genus is included in the Loeblichinae.
Horizon and facies —Loeblichia is comparatively tare in the British Lower Carboniferous and is eonfined to the upper horizons. It has been re- corded from the upper part of the Yoredale series in Northumberland, the Upper Dibuno- phyllum Zone of Northwest England, and both the Lower Limestone group and the Upper Limestone group of Scotland.
Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady) Fig. 5, D, E
Endothyra ammonoides Brady, 1873, 1876, et auc- tores.
Description —Test free, relatively small, laterally compressed, of a complanate or bicon- eave form; coiling planispiral throughout the greater part though some indication of axial rotation in the first half whorl after the pro-
Fic. 3.—Diagrams of texture of wall structure illustrating the effect of alteration, based on actual specimens. A, In Loeblichia (recrystallized) showing the irregularity of grain size and pattern. B, In Endothyra (unaltered) showing regularity of grain size and pattern which leads to retention of original septal margin. Both xX 400.
NEW GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA
Sr
Fic. 4.—Fourstonella sp. Diagram based on actual specimen showing typical appearance in thin-section; longitudinal section of specimen at- tached to ecrinoid ossicles (black) showing in- equality of septal and layer wall and differing size of chamberlets on either side of foreign body—latter feature due to obliquity of section on right side. < 60.
loculum and again toward the apertural region, where it leads to a slightly asymmetrical ar- rangement of the last four or five chambers; broad, shallow umbilici; whorls increase very slowly in height and embracement of one-quarter at any point; 10 whorls with numerous, small, slightly inflated, subcuboidal chambers in each, 23 in final whorl; in early part sutures thin, depressed lines, but in later portion depressed broad, possibly limbate, and with a sutural curvature away from the apertural region; septa about three-quarters height of whorl in length and one-quarter width of adjacent chambers in thickness; peripheral margin smoothly rounded and faintly lobulate outline; smooth or finely granular surface; wall of unknown primary composition—type material preserved in amorphous or crystalline silica; slightly inflated, terminal, shieldlike apertural face with low, lunate opening at base on median line with some indications of an original vestibular structure.
Depository, etc.—Lectotype (slide P. 41650) and paratypes (slide P. 35438 and section P. 35500) in the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural History), from the upper part of the Lower Carboniferous, Keld Head Mines, Wensleydale, Yorkshire, England (Brady _lo- eality no. 29).
Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum diameter 0.57 mm; minimum diameter 0.54 mm; maximum thickness 0.11 mm.
Comparison and affinities—The species, as re- defined here on the basis of the type material, differs from other and as yet undescribed forms of
6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Loeblichia, from the upper part of the British Lower Carboniferous, that hitherto have been grouped under Hndothyra ammonoides Brady.
Preservation and matrix.— Vide supra.
Horizon and facies —Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady) appears to be confined to the Lower Limestone group in the Scottish Lower Carbo- niferous and to equivalent horizons in England. Limited to a calcareous shale facies it has a spasmodic mode of occurrence and is never abundant or widespread.
Family TROCHAMMINIDAE
Subfamily TETRATAXINAE
FOURSTONELLA, n. gen.
Stacheia (pars) Brady, 1876, et auctores.
Type species (here designated): Stacheia fusiformis Brady, 1876.
Description.—Test attached, rarely free, small, fusiform, or globular; composed of series of layered chamberlets or subdivided segments
arranged regularly around a foreign body such as
VOL. 45, No. I
crinoid ossicle, brachiopod spine, plant, etc.; layers subconical in form and concentric in ar- rangement, overlapping at margins, thin and numerous; chamberlets separated within layers. by secondary septa which are thinner than walls of layers; often faint sutures concentrically ar- ranged on exterior surface marking termination of laminae, otherwise smooth surface and peripheral outline; wall of calcareous granules bound by calcareous cement; aperture indistinct, terminal, basal, at margin of test and foreign body.
Comparison and affinities: Fourstonella and Stacheia, as typified by Stacheia marginulinoides Brady, 1876, are distinguished by the fusiform shape, regularity and pattern of layer arrange- ment, and unequal thickness of septal and layer wall of the former to the irregular or acervuline mode of growth and equality of septal and layer wall thickness of the latter.
Both Fourstonella and Stacheia appear to be independent derivatives of Valvulinella Schubert, 1907, which is undoubtedly developed from
Fie. 5.—A, B (both X 35), Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady): A, Lateral view of lectotype (Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. P. 41651) showing original matrix in umbilicus; B, ‘Apertural view of lectotype showing
broken final chamber. Coll. P: 1000) showing internal morphology.
C (X 35), Endothyranopsis sp.: Steinkern in silica (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. D, E (X 75), Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady): D, Lat-
eral view of paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. Coll. P. 1002) showing side of specimen and adhesion
of matrix in parts; E, Apertural view of paratype.
F, G (X 65), Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady): F,
Dorsal view of paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. Coll. P. 1001); G, Ventral view of same specimen with position of original foreign body shown in form of test.
JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS: NEW Tetrataxis Ehrenberg, 1843. This phylogenetic sequence from Tetrataxis is expressed morpho- genetically by an increasing subdivision of chambers and irregularity of form and accom- panies a transition to a fixed mode of life. Stacheia represents the culmination of this trend whilst Fourstonella expresses and represents an inde- pendent, partial fulfilment.
In thin-section Fourstonella is characterized by its fusiform or circular outline, sessile habit, granular calcareous wall-structure, and in- equality of septal and layer wall thickness (Fig. 4).
Preservation and matrix—With a few excep- tions all specimens of Fourstonella appear to have undergone little or no alteration and the primary structure of the wall is retained. Where silicifica- tion by chaleedonic varieties has taken place in both Fourstonella and Stachia concentric rings may develop on the exterior surface which are similar to, but independent of, the sutural pattern of Fourstonella.
Horizon and facies.—A\though confined to the upper part of the British Avonian—the upper part of the Dibunophyllum zone and its equiva- lents—Fourstonella is a common and character- istic form of shelly limestone and calcareous shale facies.
Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady) Fig. 5, F, G
Stacheia fusiformis Brady, 1876, et auctores.
Description —Test attached, short, stout, symmetrical, fusiform, round in cross-section, taperig at both ends, composed of layers of chamberlets—or subdivided segments—sym- metrically arranged around thin, columnar, foreign body; each layer embracing previous one at peripheral margin; chambers thin, numerous, subdivided by secondary septa into minute chamberlets; external suture lines thin, concen- tric, depressed; transverse secondary septa thin- ner than chamber or layer wall; periphery smoothly rounded and smooth or faintly granular surface; wall homogeneous, of calcareous granules bound by calcareous cement; aperture indistinct, terminal, basal.
Depository, etc—Lectotype (slide P.41654) _ and paratypes (slide P.35458 and section P.35509) in the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural History), from the upper part of the Lower Carboniferous, Fourstones, Northumberland,
GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA a
England (ex Rev. W. Howchin’s collection) (Brady locality no 16).
Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum 0.67 mm; maximum breadth 0.51 mm.
Comparison and affinities—Brady (1876, p. 114) suggests that this form is closely allied to Stacheia marginulinoides Brady. However, when all morphological features are considered such a relationship is more apparent than real.
Preservation and matrix.—Vide supra.
Horizon and facies.—Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady) is present in the upper part of the British Lower Carboniferous in all areas and is particularly common in the shelly limestone facies.
length
REFERENCES
BrecKMANN, H. Rhenothyra, eine neue Foramini- ferengattung aus dem rheinishen Mitteldevon. Neues Jahrb. Geol. Pal. Monatshefte 6: 183-187. 1950.
Bravy, H. B. Notes on the Foraminifera of Min- eral Veins and adjacent strata. 39th Meeting (Exeter) Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.: 379-381 1869.
Explanation of Sheet 23. Mem. Geol.
Surv. Scotland: 63, 95, ete. 1873.
Monograph of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera (the genus Fusulina excepted): 1-166, Palaeontographical Soc. London, 1876.
Brown, T. The elements of fossil conchology. London, 1843.
EHRENBERG, C. G. Meloniae of the Oolitic lime- stones of Germany and England. Ber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1843: 106.
Hensest, L.G. Nanicella, a new genus of Devo- nian Foraminifera. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 25: 34-35. 1935.
Howcuin, W. Additions to the knowledge of the Carboniferous Foraminifera. Journ. Roy. Mier. Soc. 1888: 533-545.
Ler, J. 8S. Vaxonomic criteria of Fusulinidae with notes on seven new Permian genera. Nat. Res. Inst. China Geol. Mem. 14: 1-32. 1933.
Mo.uter, V. von. Die spiral-gewundenen Fora- miniferen des russischen Kohlenkalkes. Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, ser. 7, 9: 1-147. 1878.
Puruurps, J. On the remains of microscopic ani- mals in the rocks of Yorkshire. Proc. Geol. and Poly. Soc. W. Riding Yorks. 2: 274. 1849.
RAvusER-CHERNOUSSOVA, D. M., Bewsary, G., AND ReErTLincer, R. The Upper Palaeozoic Foraminifera of Petschoraland (western margin of the northern Urals). Trans. Polar Comm. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 28: 159-232. 1936.
Scuusert, H. J. Vérlaufige Mitteilung vwiber Foraminiferen und Kalkalgen aus dem dal- matinischen Karbon. Verh. Geol. Reichs. Wien, Jahrg 1907: 211-214. 1907.
TcHERNYSHEVA, N. I. “On the stratigraphy of the Lower Carboniferous Foraminifera in the
8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Makarovski District of the southern Urals.’ Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou 49: sec. geol. 18: 113-135. 1940.
TrerQuEM, O. Recherches sur les foraminiferes du Lias. Mém. Acad. Imp. Metz 1862.
Tuomas, A. O. Late Devonian Foraminifera from Iowa. Journ. Pal. 3: 40-41, 1931.
Tuompson, M. L. The fusulinid genus Staffella in America. Journ. Pal. 9: 111-120. 1935.
VOL. 45, No. |
——. New genera of Pennsylvanian fusulinids. Amer. Journ. Sci. 240: 403-420. 1942.
Woop, A. The structure of the wall of the test in the Foraminifera; its value in classification. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 104: 229- 255. 1948.
ZELLER, EX. Stratigraphic significance of Missis- sippian endothyranoid Foraminifera. Univ. Kansas Pal. Publ. art. 4, Protozoa, 1950.
PALEONTOLOGY .—Foraminifera from some ‘Pliocene’ rocks of Egypt. Rusup1 Samp, Cairo University, Egypt. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)
This paper lists some 40 species of Foram- inifera separated from marly limestones of a supposedly “Phocene” outcrop in Helwan, Egypt.
The ‘‘Phocene” deposits in Egypt have been the subject of many discussions and the basis of an enormous amount of litera- ture. The best description of them is found in Blanckenhorn (1903 and 1921) and in Picard (1943). The most authentic and complete résumé on the Pliocene of the Nile Valley, with which this paper is con- cerned, is found in Sandford and Arkell (1939).
The ‘‘Phocene” deposits of the Nile Valley occur in the form of isolated out- crops that extend along the sides of the valley in a thin strip stretching from Cairo to the vicinity of Aswan. The outcrops occupy a more or less uniform height above sea level—indicating that a narrow arm of the Mediterranean Sea occupied the Nile Valley, and on the basis of stratigraphic relations and marine macrofossils during Astian time. There are two main facies, a marine facies of limestones and marly lime- stones along the immediate sides of the valley in the north and a conglomeritic sandy facies in the south and in the outer fringes of this ancient ‘Pliocene’ gulf.
The outcrop from which the following species of Foraminifera come les some 10 km south of Helwan, a village to the south of Cairo. Macrofossils found in the outcrop include some considered to be the most typ- ical guide fossils for the Egyptian Pliocene, such as Ostrea cucullata, Pecten benedictus, and Chlamys scabrellus. The section consists of beds of marly limestones and limestones some 25 meters thick unconformably over- lying Eocene rocks and overlain by a grav-
elly terrace ascribed by Sandford and Arkell to the Plio-Pleistocene.
This study shows many interesting con- clusions with regard to the age of this forma- tion and the origin of its fauna.
Age.—The Foraminifera recorded in the area are decidedly Mediterranean in aspect. They compare well with the Plhocene and Pleistocene faunas of the Mediterranean region and many species are still living today in the Mediterranean. Four species Cibicides gibbosa, C. rhodiensis, Asterigerina rhodiensis, and Quinqueloculina foliacea are known from the lower Pleistocene de- posits of the Isle of Rhodes. Practically all other species are known and are typical of other such classical late Cenozoic localities of Italy and Spain. Unicosiphonia cf. U crenulata is a characteristic fossil of the Pleistocene which is here recorded for the first time in the Mediterranean region.
There are some interesting points about the assemblage. The majority of the species are cold-water forms. In fact this as- semblage, mainly composed of representa- tives of the families Textulariidae and Buli- minidae, can well be compared with that. living today in the deeper waters of the Recent Mediterranean (see for example the ecological studies of Colom (1942) and Said and Kamel (in press) on the Recent Medi- terranean fauna). The presence of this deep-water fauna in the ancient shallow Nile Valley gulf can be interpreted only as indicating a cold climate in Egypt at the time of the deposition of this formation. The distribution of the detrital sandy facies in the gulf shows that the climate was also wet. |
This type of cool wet climate compares | well with the climate of the Calabrian |
|
JANUARY 1955
stage, now regarded on the basis of this kind of climate as belonging to the lower Pleistocene (Migliorini, 1948, and Movius, 1949).
This assemblage from Helwan includes many species that do not appear in the Pho- cene-Pleistocene succession of the Rovigo boring, Italy (di Napoli-Alliata, 1946), except in the Calabrian. These species that seem to indicate the onset of the Calabrian stage are: Textularia abbreviata, T. acicu- lata, T. sagittula, and Discorbis orbicularia.
From these two interesting observations it would seem that the ‘‘Pliocene”’ outcrop of Helwan should be assigned to the Cala- brian stage that opens the Pleistocene period. Such an assignment would have far reaching implications inasmuch as it would put the entire evolutionary history of the River Nile m the post lower Pleistocene time. A reevaluation and re-dating of the terraces left behind the Nile in pre-human times should therefore be investigated in the light of this new evidence.
Although this study has been restricted to the Helwan area, it is possible that all other outcrops of the Nile Valley described as Pliocene may also belong to the Calabrian stage since all can well be correlated on the basis of their fossil content and stratigraph- ical relations with those of Helwan. If such is the case the very presence of Plio- -cene marine deposits in Egypt is question- able. Work on the revision of the macro- fauna of the so-called Pliocene of Egypt is now in progress.
Origin of the fawna—There can be no doubt that the foraminiferal fauna de- scribed here is Mediterranean in aspect. However two facts remain to be noted. The complete absence of Indo-Pacific species in the assemblage is interesting inasmuch as it confirms the conclusions reached by Cox (1929), Picard (1943) and Sandford and Arkell (1939) as to the absence of any con- nection between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea since Miocene times. On the other hand, Said and Yallouze (in press) have shown recently from an analysis of the ‘Miocene faunas of Gebel Oweibid, Egypt, that even though the fauna is overwhelm- ingly Mediterranean in aspect it also in- ‘cludes some elements of the Indo-Pacific
SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 9
region—a fact which points to a temporary ingression of the Indo-Pacific. The com- position of the Helwan Calabrian foraminif- eral fauna seems to show that this con- nection ceased entirely during the Pliocene and lower Pleistocene time—contrary to Ball’s paleogeographic map (1939), which shows a connection between the Mediter- ranean and the Red Sea during the Pliocene.
The second fact to be noted is the pres- ence of Cibicides gibbosa and C. rhodiensis, typical lower Pleistocene Mediterranean species in the Recent waters of the Red Sea. This can be explained only by assum- ing a temporary connection between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea in post lower Pleistocene time to allow for the mi- gration of these species. Such a connection must have been very temporary, since it did not substantially affect the aspect of the faunas of both seas which remain distinct. This assumed connection is confirmed by the presence of a marine level in the clysmic area common to both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea (as described by Hume and Little, 1928) and dated as Midde Paleolithic.
Family TEXTULARIIDAE Genus Textularia Defrance, 1824 Textularia abbreviata d’Orbigny
Textularia abbreviata d’Orbigny, Foram. Foss.
Vienne: 249, pl. 15, figs. 9-12. 1849.
This distinct species occurs in small numbers in the samples from Helwan. This species has been noted from the Miocene of central Europe, but does not seem to appear in the Mediterranean until the Calabrian. It is also recorded from the Recent seas.
Textularia cf. T. aciculata d’Orbigny
Textularia aciculata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:
pl. 11, figs. 1-4. 1826.
A few specimens that seem to belong to this species occur in the Helwan material. Specimens are slightly longer and thinner particularly at their initial end than in the typical form. This species appears in the Mediterranean deposits only since the Calabrian.
Textularia candeiana d’Orbigny
Textularia candeiana d’Orbigny, in de la Sagra, Hist. Phys. Pol. Nat. Cuba, “Foraminiféres’’: 143, p. 1, figs. 25-27. 1839.
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The distribution of this species in the Recent waters is cosmopolitan. In the modern Mediter- ranean it lives in the deeper waters, together with other representatives of the family Textulariidae.
Textularia neorugosa Thalmann
Textularia neorugosa Thalmann, Contr. Cushman
Found. Foram. Res. 1: 45. 950.
This cosmopolitan species occurs abundantly in the Helwan material. Test large, robust; chambers numerous with their lower margins excavated and with overhanging lateral lobula- tions; sutures irregularly rugose; peripheral mar- gin of the test subacute. Specimens resemble those recorded from the Red Sea (Said, Contr. Cush- man Found. Foram. Res., 1: 5, pl. 1, fig. 5, 1929.).
Textularia pseudorugosa Lacroix
Textularia pseudorugosa Lacroix, Bull. Oceanogr. 582: 11, fig. 3 (in text). 1931.
Inst.
This is a Mediterranean species known from the deeper Recent waters of this Sea. It is a well- defined species with a rapidly expanding keeled test, distinct sutures, and numerous chambers three times as wide as high.
Textularia sagittula Defrance
Textularia sagittula Defrance, Dict. Sci. Nat. 32: 177. 1824; 53: 344. 1828; Atlas Conch.; pl. 18, fig. 5. 1824.
This is a deep-water Mediterranean species that is recorded in small numbers in the outcrop studied.
Family MInioLipar Genus Quinqueloculina d’Orbigny, 1826 Quinqueloculina foliacea (Terquem)
Triloculina foliacea Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3: 60, pl. 6, figs. la-e. 1878.
Specimens of this Lower Pleistocene species of the Mediterranean region are found in small numbers in the Helwan material. The test is somewhat foliated with the foliae extending in keel-like projections at the edge of the chambers. This is a distinct and well-defined species.
Family Lacenrpan Genus Robulus Montfort, 1808 Robulus cultratus (Montfort)
Robulina cultrata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 287, no. 1. 1826; Modéles no. 82. 1826.
vou. 45, No. 1
This cosmopolitan species is found in small numbers in the Egyptian material. According to Cushman and McCulloch (Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. 6 (6): 296, 1950) this species is re- corded from deep waters at an average depth of 65 to 90 fathoms. Our specimens lack the keeled periphery of specimens of many authors although they resemble the forms recorded from the late Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region by the earlier workers.
Genus Nodosaria Lamarck, 1812 Nodosaria sulcata d’Orbigny
Nodosaria sulcata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 253, no. 21. 1826. Cushman, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 13: 12, pl. 2, fig. 2; pl. 3, fig. 2. 1945.
A few specimens of this species, which is known from the Italian Pliocene and Recent Mediter- ranean, are recorded in Helwan. They are always 2-chambered and costate.
Family NONIONIDAE Genus Nonion Montfort, 1808 Nonion ibericum Cushman
Nonion ibericum Cushman, U. 8S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 191: 17, pl. 4, figs. 17, 18. 1939.
A few typical specimens of this species are found in Helwan. The small test, the rounded periphery, the umbilical plug, and the sigmoidal sutures characterize this species. This is a Pleistocene species recorded previously from Malaga, Spain.
Nonion pompiloides (Fichtel and Moll)
Nonion umbilicatula d’Orbigny, Ann. Sei. Nat. 7:
293, pl. 15, figs. 10-12. 1826.
Nonion pompiloides Cushman, U. 8. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 191: 19, pl. 5, figs. 9-12. 1939.
A few specimens of this species are recorded from Helwan. Specimens are smaller than is usual and are thinner. This is mainly a Mediterranean species known from the late Cenozoic and Recent waters of this region as well as from many other localities.
Genus Elphidium Montfort, 1808 Elphidium crispum Linné Elphidium crispum Cushman, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 5: 20, pl. 4, figs. 3, 4. 1929. Several typical specimens of this Mediter- ranean species are recorded from the Helwan material.
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JANUARY 1955
Family PoLyMORPHINIDAE Genus Pyrulina d’Orbigny, 1830 Pyrulina fusiformis (Roemer)
Polymorphina fusiformis Roemer, Neues Jahrb. fur Min., ete., 1838: 386, pl. 3, fig. 37. Pyrulina fusiformis Cushman and Ozawa, Proc.
U. S: Nat. Mus. 77 (art. 6): 54, pl. 13) figs. 3-8. 1930. This deep-water species, recorded from
modern seas and late Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region, is noted in small numbers in the Helwan material. Specimens differ slightly from those of the deep Atlantic by having more depressed sutures.
Family BULIMINIDAE Genus Bulimina d’Orbigny, 1826 Bulimina acanthia Costa Bulimina acanthia Costa, Atti. Accad. Pont. 8,
pt. 2: 335, pl. 13, figs. 35, 36. 1856.
A few specimens of this species occur in our material. The chambers are inflated particularly in the latter part of the test with sight overhang- ing but are not ornamented with any spines. This species Is common in the Italian Pliocene.
Bulimina buchiana d’Orbigny
Bulimina buchiana d’Orbigny, Foram. Fossiles
Bassin Vienne: 186, pl. 11, figs. 15-18. 1846.
This Miocene Mediterranean species is found in the Helwan material in abundance. Specimens are smaller than usual and the test is ornamented with extremely fine longitudinal costae. The chambers are inflated and there is no overhanging.
Bulimina costata d’Orbigny Bulimina costata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:
269, no. 1, 1826.
This species occurs in abundance in the Egyptian material. Specimens are typical. This species seems to be one of the autochthonous forms of the Mediterranean region that has been re- corded from since the Miocene to the Recent. It is also recorded off the coast of Ireland.
Bulimina elongata d’Orbigny Bulimina elongata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7:
269, no. 9. 1826.
This species is found in abundance in the Egyptian material. Specimens have an elongate slender test, inflated and angled chambers, and smooth polished wall. Our specimens resemble those recorded from the Mediterranean area.
SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 11
This species ranges from the Eocene to the Re- cent and seems to have its origin in the Mediter- ranean region. Bulimina gibba Fornasini
Bulimina gibba Fornasini, Mem. Accad. Sci. Ist.
Bologna, ser. 5, 9: 378, pl. O, figs. 32-34. 1901.
This species was recorded in the top part of the section. Specimens are typical except that very faint costae appear on the otherwise smooth and polished test. The terminal basal spine is lacking, but there are short spines that ornament the base. The chambers are distinct, regularly triserial, slightly inflated and offset so as to give a slight twist to the test.
Bulimina inflata Seguenza
Bulimina inflata Seguenza, Atti Accad. Gioenia
Sci. Nat., ser. 2, 18: 25, pl. 1, fig. 10. 1862.
This Mediterranean and east Atlantic species occurs in the Egyptian material in small numbers. Test widest near top with the last whorl forming about one-third of the entire length. This species is characterized by having broad costae, a rapidly tapermg test and chambers that do not overhang. This is one of the species that has probably invaded the Mediterranean in a cold period. It is common in the Pleistocene of Italy. Records of this species in older sediments need revision.
Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny, Foram. Fossiles
Bassin Vienne: 185, pl. 11, figs. 11, 12. 1846.
A few specimens of this species are found in the top beds of the Helwan section. They ap- proach in their structural detail those recorded from the Mediterranean region. Specimens lack, however, the lip and the tooth in the aperture. This species has a long record but is common in the late Cenozoic of the Mediterranean region.
Genus Bolivina d’Orbigny Bolivina aenariensis (Costa) Brizalina aenariensis Costa, Atti Accad. Pont. 8,
pt. 2: 297, pl. 15, figs. 1A, B. 1856.
This is a late Tertiary Mediterranean species that has been much confused. Specimens look very much similar to those recorded from the Pliocene of Coroncina, Italy, in having an elon- gate test without a spine at the base, sutures slightly limbate and strongly curved, and the characteristic costae on the surface extending from the base to the middle of the test.
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Bolivina catanensis Seguenza
Bolivina catanensis Seguenza, Atti Accad. Gioenia Sci. Nat., ser. 2, 18: 29, pl. 2, figs. 3, 3a, 3b. 1862.
This is a typical Mediterranean species that is recorded from the Pleistocene of Italy. Speci- mens are compressed and have an elongate test which is occasionally twisted in its initial end.
Bolivina cf. B. compacta Sidebottom
Boliwina robusta var. compacta Sidebottom, Mem. Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 49 (5): 15, pl. 3, fig. 7. 1905.
A few specimens that seem to belong to this species are found in Helwan. Specimens differ from typical in having a more roughened ex- terior, a rounded initial end, and a more elongate test. This is a Mediterranean species that has been recorded from many Recent seas at different depths.
Genus Reussella Galloway, 1933 Reussella spinulosa (Reuss)
Verneuilina spinulosa Reuss, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 1: 374, pl. 47, fig. 12. 1850. Verneuilina spinulosa Reuss, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 1: 374, pl. 47, fig. 12. 1850. A few typical specimens of this cosmopolitan species are found in the Helwan material.
Genus Uvigerina d’Orbigny, 1826 Uvigerina costai Said, new name Uvigerina striata Costa (non d’Orbigny), Atti
Accad. Pont. 7 (fase. 2): p. 266, pl. 15, fig. 3.
1856—Cushman and Todd, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 17: 71, pl. 17, fig. 4. 1941.
Specimens resembling Costa’s figures for this species have been found in the Helwan material. Test moderate in size for the genus, elongate, circular in transverse section, base tapering; chambers equal, rather large, slightly inflated; sutures distinct; wall with fine longitudinal striae interrupted at the sutures, extending through the length of the test equally; aperture at the end of a short neck, very slightly lipped.
This species deserves a new name as U. striata has been used by d’Orbigny in 1826 for a Recent species.
Genus Unicosiphonia Cushman, 1935 Unicosiphonia cf. U. crenulata Cushman
Unicosiphonia crenulata Cushman, Contr. Cush- man Lab. Foram. Res. 11: 81, pl. 12, figs. 9, 10. 1935.
vou. 45, No. 1
A few specimens of this species are found in Helwan section. Specimens are slightly different in having a more rounded initial end that does not show any traces of biseriality and in having more poorly developed crenulations. This is the first record of this species in the Mediterranean region.
Family RoraiipAE Genus Discorbis Lamarck, 1804 Discorbis orbicularis (Terquem) Discorbina orbicularis H. B. Brady, Rep. Voy.
Challenger, Zoology, 9: 647, pl. 88, figs. 4-8.
1884.
This is mainly a Mediterranean east Atlantic species of wide geographical distribution in Recent waters. It is also recorded from the late Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region, although it seems not to have invaded the Recent Mediterranean except in the Calabrian time.
Family AMPHISTEGINIDAE Genus Asterigerina d’Orbigny, 1839 Asterigerina rhodiensis Terquem
Asterigerina rhodiensis Terquem, Mém. Soc.
Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3:31, pl. 3, figs. 1-4.
1878. ©
Typical specimens of this species recorded from the lower Pleistocene of the Isle of Rhodes are recorded in abundance in the Helwan material.
Family GLOBIGERINIDAE Genus Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826 Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 277, no. 1. 1826; Modeles nos. 17, 76. 1826.—
Cushman, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 17: p. 38, pl. 10, figs. 1-13. 1941.
Typical and well-preserved specimens of this species are recorded in large numbers at the top beds of the Helwan section. They agree in detail with d’Orbigny’s original descriptions and mod- els. The occurrence of this species in abundance indicates conditions where the effect of freshening of water was not felt.
Family ANOMALINIDAE Genus Planulina d’Orbigny, 1826 Planulina sp.
Test much compressed, partly evolute, earlier chambers visible from both sides; chambers
JANUARY 1955
numerous; sutures distinct, flush with the surface, eurved slightly toward the periphery; ventral side umbilicate; wall perforate, smooth; aperture at the base of the last chamber at the median line. The compressed large test and the wide circular umbilicus of the ventral side distinguish this species found in very small numbers in the top bed of the Helwan section.
Genus Cibicides Montfort, 1808 Cibicides gibbosa (Terquem) Anomalina gibbosa Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3,1, pt. 3: 24, pl. 2, fig. 7. 1878. Cibicides gibbosa Said, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 26: 48, pl. 4, fig. 19. 1949.
Typical specimens of this species hitherto re- corded from the Lower Pleistocene of the Isle of Rhodes and the Recent Red Sea are found in large numbers in the Helwan material. This species is biconvex and is coarsely perforate. It possesses the apertural characteristics of the genus Cibicidoides Brotzen, 1936. The author prefers to place this species in the genus Cibicides until the validity of the genus Cibicidoides is cleared (see Hofker, 1951, Siboga Exped. m1).
Cibicides lobatulus (Walker and Jacob)
Truncatulina lobatula H. B. Brady, Rep. Voy. Challenger, Zoology, 9: 660, pl. 92, fig. 10; pl. 93, figs. 1, 4, 5; pl. 95, figs. 4, 5. 1884.
Typical specimens of this cosmopolitan species are found in the Helwan material. According to Cushman this is a ‘‘very common species in cool waters.” There are records, however, of this species in deeper tropical waters and in tropical shallow seas, but such records probably need revision.
Cibicides refulgens Montfort Cibicides refulgens Cushman, U. 8. Nat. Mus., Bull. 104, pt. 8: 116 pl. 21, figs. 2a-c. 1931.
This is a cosmopolitan species that is par- ticularly abundant in cool waters of the modern seas, according to H. B. Brady.
SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 13
Cibicides rhodiensis (Terquem)
Truncatulina rhodiensis Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3: 21, pl. 1, fig. 26. 1878.
Cibicides rhodiensis Said, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 26: p. 42, pl. 4, fig. 16. 1949.
This species recorded from the Lower Pleisto- cene of the Isle of Rhodes and the Recent Red Sea is found in abundance in Helwan. The dis- tribution of this species can be explained only if we assume a temporary connection to have existed between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea sometime in the Pleistocene. Specimens are typical and abundant.
REFERENCES
Batu, J. Contributions to the geography of Egypt: Survey of Egypt. 1939.
BLANCKENHORN, M. Neues zur Geologie und Paleon- tologie Aegyptens: IV. Das Pliozan. Zeitschr. deutschen geol. Ges. 53: 307-502. 1903.
. Handbuch der regionalen Geologie, Aegypten. Heidelberg, 1921.
Cotom, G. Una contribucién al conocimiento de los foraminiferos de la Bahia de Palma de Mallorca. Notas y Res. Inst. Espaftiol Oceanografia,
ser. 2, no. 108. 1942.
Cox, L. R. Notes on the post-Miocene Ostereidae etc. Proc. Malac. Soc. London 48, pts. 4 and 5: 165-209. 1929.
Hume, W. F., and Lirrin, O. H. Raised beaches and terraces of Egypt. C. R. Union Geogr. Intern., Paris (session 14, 1926) : 9-15. 1928.
Movius, H. M. Villafranchian stratigraphy in southern and southwestern Europe. Journ. Geol. 57: 380-412. 1949.
Napour-Auuiata, EK. Dr. Contributo all conoscenza della stratigrafia del Pliocene e del Calabriano nella regione di Rovigo. Riv. Ital. Paleontologia 52: 19-36. 1946.
Picarp, L. The structure and evolution of Palestine. Bull. Geol. Dept. Hebrew University 4, Nos. 2-4. 1943.
Sai, R., and Kame, T. Recent littoral Foraminif- era from the Egyptian Mediterranean coast between Saloum and Bardia. (In press.)
Sarip, R., and YaunouzE. Miocene fauna from Gebel Oweibid, Egypt. Bull. Inst. Egypte. (In press.)
Sanprorp, K.S., and ArkeL., W. J. Paleolithic man and the Nile Valley in Lower Egypt. Oriental Inst. Publ. 46. 1939.
14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
vou. 45, No. 1
PALEONTOLOGY .—A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pitkin. HARRELL L. Srrimeie, Bartlesville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.)
The form described below as Cymbio- crinus pitkini, n. sp., is from the Pitkin formation, Chester, of the Cookson Hills southeast of Fort Gibson, Okla. Strong affinity with Pennsylvanian representatives of the Ampelocrinidae is indicated.
DENDROCRINOIDEA Bather AMPELOCRINIDAE Kirk Cymbiocrinus Kirk, 1944 Cymbiocrinus pitkini, n. sp. Fig. 1
Description.—The crown of the holotype is 43 mm high; the dorsal cup is about 2.5 mm high by 9.6 mm wide.
Dorsal cup is shallowly bowl-shaped, with shallow basal concavity. IBB small, confined to the basal concavity and entirely covered by the pentagonal shaped proximal columnals. BB are five, small, and form sides of the basal concavity but curve upward to participate slightly in the lateral walls of the cup. RR are five large elements with width slightly greater than length. The single anal plate is quadrangular, resting evenly on the truncated upper edge of post. B, and does not extend above the cup height.
There are 10 long, slow-tapering, uniserial arms. PBr is low, wide, with lateral sides taper- ing slightly. Axillary PBre is large, lateral sides expanding for a short distance thence sloping rapidly to the apex of the plate. SBrBr are remarkably regular segments. Each SBr appears to have two well-developed though thin pinnules of moderate length, one on each lateral side. There is no demonstrated tendency toward fusion, or syzygy, other than between PBr; and PBro.
The tegmen, or anal sac, has not been ob- served.
Remarks.—The arms of C. pitkini serve most readily to distinguish it from other described species. The regularity of the relatively thick SBrBr, with no tendency toward cuneiformity or syzygial pairs, in unique for known species
referred to this genus. C. gravis Strimple (1951), from the slightly older Fayetteville formation, has cuneiform arms, and the axillary PBrs has no lateral sides, so that the first SBr is in contact with PBr;. The basal plates of C. gravis are more pronounced and bulbous than those of C. pitkini. Both species have pentagonal stems and in that respect are distinct from all other known species of Cymbiocrinus.
Occurrence.-—Approximately 4 miles southeast of Greenleaf Lake in bluff overlooking the Arkansas River, Cookson Hills, Okla.; upper Pitkin limestone formation, Chester, Mississip- pian.
Types.—Holotype and paratype collected by the author. To be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum.
REFERENCES
Kirk, Epwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 242: 233-245. 1944.
Srrimpie, Harretrt L. Bull. Amer. Pal. Soc. 33(137): 18, 19, pl. 4, figs. 4-6. 1951.
ae
Fie. 1.—Cymbiocrinus pitkini, n. sp. View of holotype from the posterior, X 1.7
JANUARY 1955 NEWHOUSE ET AL.:
IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 15
ENTOMOLOGY —The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooleyi, 8. bullata, and S. shermani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). VERNE F. Newnouse, Davin W. WaLker, and Mavricr T. JamrEs, State College of Washington.
This paper describes the immature stages of three species of saprophagous flies, Sarcophaga cooleyi Parker, S. bullata Parker, and S. shermani Parker. These flies show an extremely close relationship to one another as adults, and this affinity is even more completely borne out by comparative study of their larval stages.
Greene (1925) described briefly and illus- trated the puparia of Sarcophaga cooleyz and S. bullata. The larva of S. bullata, un- doubtedly third stage though not expressly so stated, is also briefly discussed and figured. Knipling (1936) described more fully the first instar of S. bullata, in com- parison with some other species of the same genus, and illustrated the cephalopharyngeal apparatus, the entire larva, and the pattern and morphology of the setulae. Root (1923) discussed the morphology and _ specific characters of sarcophagid larvae including bullata, with special emphasis on spiracular characters. As far as we can ascertain there has been no published study of the larval forms of S. shermani.
This present study was initiated with the hope of distinguishing more clearly these important, closely related species and of facilitating their identification in the future.
A great amount of the preliminary work on this study was done during the summer of 1951 by David W. Walker and presented in a thesis submitted as partial fulfillment of requirements for a M.S. degree in ento- mology at the State College of Washington. Material for Mr. Walker’s study, as well as for this one, was obtained through studies supported in part by funds provided for biological and medical research by the State of Washington, Initiative Measure no. 171.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Material for study was taken from labora- tory colonies, reared at the State College of Washington, from stocks originally collected in various areas of the State. Samples were taken from well established colonies which had been carried through as many as 27 generations. Although larvae of all ages
were examined, the most fully developed of each instar were selected wherever possible as it was felt that this would show most typically the anatomical characters of that instar.
In all stages of all species except one (Sarcophaga bullata) second instar, of which 18 specimens were studied), at least 50 and as many as 300 specimens were ex- amined.
For fixation, eggs and larvae were placed in water and heated to the boiling point for 30 seconds. The water was then decanted and the specimens were carried through 70 per cent alcohol for 24 hours, into abso- lute alcohol for a similar time period, drained, placed in xylene for 24 hours, and finally stored in clove oil. Those for gross examina- tion were retained in 70 per cent alcohol. Larvae for the purpose of illustration were removed from alcohol, cut in half, and boiled in concentrated potassium hydroxide until the integument was clear and the body contents removed. The cephalopharyngeal apparatus was examined under clove oil at magnification of 45 diameters, and all draw- ings were made with the aid of a micrometer grid. As sarcophagid flies are normally larviparous, eggs were obtained by dissec- tion or by forcing them from the abdomen of gravid flies before the development of the larvae.
Sarcophaga cooleyi Parker
Sarcophaga cooley: Parker, Can. Ent. 46: 417-423. 1914.
Egg.—White; smooth; slightly curved, tapered moderately toward one end. Length 1.10 mm, diameter 0.333 mm.
First stage larva.—White; muscidiform; length 1.50 to 4.75 mm, diameter 0.75 mm; cuticle nearly smooth. Anterior and/or posterior margin of each segment possessing many hooklike setulae arranged around the segmental circum- ference in the form of a band. Spinous bands very prominent; setulae dark brown in color; bands complete on segments 2 through 12. Band on segment 2 (first thoracic) very broad, especially ventrally just posterior to mouth hooks. Bands
16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCEINCES
on anterior margins usually complete on seg- ments 2 through 9; incomplete on segments 10 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; com- plete on segments 9 through 11; and incomplete on segments 5 through 8. Dorsal and lateral portions of bands on segments 5 through 12 not as heavy or dark as on the more anterior seg- ments. Larvae metapneustic; prothoracic spiracles non-functional but may be visible beneath integument, especially just before the molt. Caudal pair of spiracles situated in a shallow cavity, each unit consisting of two elongated spiracular openings lying side by side, their inner sides confluent and their axis dorsoventral. Distance between each spiracle approximately equal to the width of one spiracle. Peritreme absent. Posterior tubercles weakly developed; may appear to be absent. Opening of spiracular cavity bordered with nearly complete ring of setulae or darkened cuticular papillae. Anal tubercles small but prominent. Anal opening surrounded by patch of black setulae.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 1).—Labial sclerite well formed, heavily pigmented. Mouth hooks fused, or in process of fusing postero- ventrally. Hooks arising from anterodorsal corner of sclerite, extending forward in a smooth even curve, terminating in a sharp point above the median longitudinal axis of the sclerite.1 An- terior lower edge of sclerite more or less sharp and truncate. Hypostomal] sclerite small; from a lateral aspect wedge-shaped, broadened pos- teriorly, narrowed anteriorly; from a ventral aspect much less pigmented, broad and _ thick posteriorly, extending anteriorly as two thin lateral processes. Small accessory sclerite be- tween mouth hooks not visible. Dental sclerite apparently absent. Pharyngeal sclerite well de- veloped; well pigmented. Anterior process of ventral portion possessing a small sclerotized extension which protrudes posteriorly. Upper posterior end of ventral cornu heavily pigmented, protruding upward and outward beyond lower edge. Over-all length of skeleton 0.455 to 0.546 mm.
Second stage larva——White; muscidiform; length 5.0 to 9.0 mm, diameter 0.75 to 1.75 mm. Entire cuticle covered with minute papillae
1 The median longitudinal axis is here defined as a line drawn through the body of the sclerite from back to front midway between the posterior corners and roughly parallel to the lower edge.
vou. 45, No. 1
except the anterior margin of each segment which possesses many hookline setulae; anterior spinous bands prominent, setulae dark brown in color. Lateral margins of oral opening possessing minute ridges which radiate from the opening. Band on segment 2 sometimes divided, either with a heavy patch of setulae dorsally and ventrally, or with the band complete but with its lateral portions weakly developed; band some- times obscured as a result of retraction of the cephalic segment. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 9 or 10; incomplete on segments 10 or 11 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on segments 8 through 11. Larvae amphipneustic; prothoracic spiracle near posterior margin of segment 2 (first thoracic), prominently divided into 12 to 15 digits, each terminating in an oval spiracular opening. Caudal spiracles, each composed of two slit-like openings, situated in a deep cavity; peritreme present but weakly developed. Spiracles almost contiguous at upper inner border. Posterior tubercles humplike; posterior cavity bordered with complete ring of setulae or darkened integumental papillae. Anal tubercles prominent and fingerlike. Anal opening surrounded by small patch of black setulae.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 2).—Labial sclerite heavy, deeply pigmented; hook extending from upper anterior corner of sclerite outward and downward in a smooth curve, but terminating above the median longitudinal axis of the sclerite. Lower anterior corner of sclerite possessing a rounded toothlike protuberance; the sliverlike dental sclerite clearly visible just posterior to this protuberance. Accessory sclerite slender, lying between posterior ends of labial sclerites, extend- ing downwards below the edge of the labial sclerite so as to give the impression of a small ventral process on the sclerite when viewed from a lateral aspect. Hypostomal sclerite narrowed anteriorly, fused basely to the pharyngeal sclerite. Paired infrahypostomal sclerites weakly developed, lightly pigmented; visible from dorsal aspect between anterior arms of hypostomal sclerite. Pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented; parastomal sclerite rather thick, blunt; dorso- pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented, flattened anteriorly. Ventral cornu thickened posteriorly; the upper edge bending dorsally and possessing a small, weakly developed fenestra, the lower edge
JANUARY 1955 NEWHOUSE ET AL.: IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 17
Fias. 1-9.—Cephalopharyngeal skeletons of Sarcophaga, lateral (upper figure) and ventral (lower figure) views: 1, S. cooleyi, first instar; 2, same, second instar; 3, same, third instar. 4, S. bullata, first instar; 5, same, second instar; 6, same, third instar. 7, S. shermani, first instar; 8, same, second instar; ), same, third instar. Drawn by Verne F. Newhouse. Drawings in each case based on representative specimens of the series studied.
18
extending posteriorly. Over-all length of skeleton usually about 0.966 mm.
Third stage larva.—White, muscidiform; length 8.75 to 20.25 mm; at maturity (average of 10) 19.17 mm. Diameter 1.5 to 4.5 mm. Entire cuticle covered with minute papillae except the anterior margin of each segment which possesses many hooklike setulae. Spinous band on segment 2 (first thoracic) incomplete; large patch of setulae posterior to mouth hooks, similar patch dorsally but lateral extensions of band incomplete. Oral margin posessing small ridges which radiate from the oral cavity, extending well laterally on the cephalic segment. Spious bands complete on segments 2 through 12. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 10; incomplete on segments 11 and 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 8; and complete on segments 9 through 11. Pro- thoracic spiracles prominent, divided into 9 to 17 digits, but more commonly into 14 to 16. Caudal spiracles, each divided into three slit- like openings, situated in a deep cavity. Peritreme prominent, strongly developed; extending dorsally and medially to form a rather sharp upper inside angle, then laterally and ventrally in a rather regular curve to terminate directly beneath the innermost slit. Ratio of width of one spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.77 to 3.75 (average of 10). Posterior tubercles slender and fingerlike. Spiracular cavity bordered by ring of microscopic setulae or dark papillae. Anal tubercles large and fingerlike, depending from a prominent anal process. Anal opening surrounded by small patch of black setulae in contrast to colorless setulae of body in general.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 3).—Labial sclerite strongly developed, heavily pigmented; hook arising from upper anterior angle of sclerite, extending straight outward, then bending down- ward in a rather sharp curve. Front angle below tooth sharp, truncate. Dental sclerite strongly developed. Accessory sclerite protrudes below lower edge of labia] sclerite, appearing from lateral aspect as a process of that sclerite. Hypostomal sclerite roughly rectangular, more narrowed anteriorly than posteriorly. Paired infrahy- postomal sclerites visible between and below arms of hypostomal sclerite. Pharyngeal sclerite heavily pigmented medially, but lightly pig- mented distally. Dorsopharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented except for extreme upper anterior
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 45, No. 1
flattened area. Parastomal sclerite rather heavy, blunt. Dorsal cornu possessing an elongated, narrow fenestra; ventral cornu thickened pos- teriorly, possessing a small, weakly developed fenestra in upper posterior corner. Lower edge of ventral cornu (sometimes almost indiscernible) convex. Lines of axis of dorsal and ventral cornu divergent posteriorly. Overall length of skeleton usually about 1.70 mm.
Pupa.—Elliptical, dull dark red; 8.5 to 11 mm in length, 3 to 5 mm in diameter. Opening of spiracular cavity oval to elliptical. Spira- cular plate on roof of posterior cavity shining deep red-brown; slits almost white in contrast. Tubercles surrounding posterior cavity flat- tened, distorted. Ana] tubercles prominent. Posterior tubercles connected to anal tubercles by a broad, rounded ridge. Spinous bands complete on segments 3 through 12. Pro- throacic spiracles evident, but number of digits usually not discernible.
Sarcophaga bullata Parker
Sarcophaga bullata Parker, Can. Ent. 48: 359-364. 1916.
Egg.—Unfertilized egg at time of copulation white, translucent; 0.49 mm in length, 0.30 mm in diameter. Shape almost as hen’s egg. Entire surface covered with minute depressions or pits.” Mature egg as in cooleyi; length 1.25 mm. Distinctly tapered anteriorly. Developing larva distinctly visible within.
First stage larva—White, muscidiform, as in cooleyt. Newly hatched larva 2 to 2.5 mm in length; 0.5 mm in diameter. Spinous bands con- siderably more prominent than in cooleyi, almost black im color; not divided to as great an extent by plicae except ventrally. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 7; incomplete on segments 8 through 10; and absent on segments 11 and 12. Bands on pos- terior margins usually absent on segments 1 through 6; incomplete on segments 5 through 8; and complete on segments 9 through 11. Anal tubercles more fingerlike than in cooley.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 4).—Labial sclerite well developed. Mouth hook arising as in cooleyi, but more slender and raised higher from median longitudinal axis of sclerite. Posterior
2 This degree in development unfortunately ©
could not be accurately matched in the other species, therefore cannot be compared.
JANUARY 1955
articulation process extending laterally, very slender. Accessory sclerite visible between labial sclerites. Hypostomal sclerite thickened pos- teriorly. Anterior extensions of ventral cornu not possessing a dorsal process. Pharyngeal sclerite smaller and lighter in pigment than in cooleyi. Ventral cornu not extending dorsally, but ap- pearing bifurcated apically as a result of in- complete sclerotization. Over-all length of skeleton 0.483 mm.
Second stage larva—Much as in cooley?. Larva apparently slightly larger. Length 5.25 to 9.25 mm, diameter 0.75 to 2.25 mm. Setulae of cuticle black; bands on segments 2 through 12 complete. Band on segment 2 very broad, especially ventrally. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 7; incomplete on segments 10 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 8, complete on segments 9 through 11. Narrow band of setulae partially surrounding base of anal prominence.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 5).—Labial sclerite more slender than in cooleyi. Hook ex- tending below the median logitudinal] axis of the sclerite. Small tooth on lower anterior edge of sclerite more prominent, sharper than in cooley7. Dental sclerite obvious. Slender accessory sclerite larger, extending more ventrad and caudad, appearing from lateral aspect as a long pro- tuberance on labial sclerite. Hypostomal and infrahypostomal sclerites as in cooleyi. Pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented. Parastomal sclerite slender, usually bent up at the tip. Dorsopharyn- geal sclerite more heavily pigmented, anterior flattening more pronounced. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate; ventral cornu more slender, lower edge more straight than convex. Overall length of skeleton about 0.866 mm.
Third stage larva——White, muscidiform, much as in cooleyi. Larva slightly larger; length 9.50 to 21.00 mm; at maturity (average of 10) 20.17 mm. Setulae of cuticle may show blackening of tips. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 8; incomplete on segments 9 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on segments 8 through 11. Posterior tubercles fingerlike; anal tubercles long and prominent. Ratio of width of one spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.80 to 3.95 (average of 10).
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 6).—Labial
NEWHOUSE ET AL.: IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 19
sclerites strongly developed. Hook arising from upper anterior angle, extending straight outward, then downward in a slightly more regular curve than in cooley?. Dental sclerite slightly less de- veloped. Accessory, hypostomal, and _ infra- hypostomal sclerites as in cooleyi. Pharyngeal sclerite much more compressed. Parastomal sclerite more slender, usually tilted upward anteriorly. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate. Lines of axis of dorsal and ventral cornu not divergent posteriorly, but roughly parallel. Over- all length of skeleton 1.56 mm.
Pupa.—As in cooleyi; perhaps slightly larger. Length 9.5 to 11.5 mm.
Sarcophaga shermani Parker
Sarcophaga exuberans Authors (not Pandellé, Rev. Ent. 15: 186. 1896).
Sarcophaga shermani Parker, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 14: 41-46. 1919; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9(11): 124. 1923.
Egg.—Indistinguishable from cooleyi; length about 1.50 mm.
First stage larva——As in cooleyi. Length of mature larva 5.50 mm, diameter 1.0 mm. Anal tubercles usually not as prominent as in cooleyi. Setulae of spinous bands black in color. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on seg- ments 2 through 11; absent on segment 12. Bands on posterior margins absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segment 5; complete on segments 6 through 11.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 7).—Labial sclerite more slender than in either cooleyi or bullata; tooth arising at higher angle in relation to axis of sclerite. Dorsal cornu of pharyngeal sclerite relatively longer and more slender. Overall length of skeleton 0.533 mm.
Second stage larva-—As in cooleyi. Length 5.50 to 8.25 mm, diameter 1.0 to 1.75 mm. Spmous bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 9 or 10; in- complete on segments 10 or 11 through 12. Bands on posterior margins absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on segments 8 through 11. Bands on second and third segments sometimes incomplete and indistinct. Posterior tubercles humplike but prominent; anal tubercles more _fingerlike. Darkened band surrounding spiracular cavity not as prominent as in cooleyi. Narrow band of setulae at ventral base of anal tubercles.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 8).—Labial
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
sclerite with hook arising at high angle. Dental, accessory, hypostomal and _ infrahypostomal sclerites prominent. Pharyngeal sclerite well formed and quite heavily pigmented. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate. Cornua sometimes divergent posteriorly. Lower surface of ventral cornu almost concave in outline. Over-all length of skeleton 1.05 mm.
Third stage larva——As in cooleyt. Length 8.00 to 18.00 mm, diameter 1.5 to 4.0 mm; at maturity (average of 10) 16.79 mm. Setulae of cuticle may be black at tip or colorless. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 10; incomplete on segments 11 and 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on 8 through 11. Ratio of width of one spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.4 to 2.5. (Average of 10) One specimen, obviously atypical, was observed with three slits in the left spiracle and two in the right.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 9).—Similar
vou. 45, No. I
to cooleyt. Mouth hook with small tooth on the underside at base. Dental sclerite robust. Parastomal sclerite slender and usually bent up at the tip. Pharyngeal sclerite quite heavily pigmented. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate. Dorsal cornu comparatively more _ slender. Cornua divergent posteriorly. Lower edge of ventral cornu flattened or concave in profile. Over-all length of skeleton 1.43 mm.
Pupa—As in cooleyi. Ridge connecting anal tubercles and posterior tubercles usually weakly developed or absent.
LITERATURE CITED
GREENE, CuHarutes T. The puparia and larvae of sarcophagid flies. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 66 (29) : 1-26. 1925.
Kntpuinc, Epwarp F. A comparative study of the first-instar larvae of the genus Sarcophaga (Calliphoridae: Diptera), with notes on the biology. Journ. Parasit. 22(5): 417-454. 1936.
Root, Francts M. Notes on larval characters in the genus Sarcophaga. Journ. Parasit. 9(4): 227-229. 1923.
ENTOMOLOGY Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A. ANDREWS, Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by Paul H. Oehser.)
The periodical or seventeen-year cicada, found only in North America, has a sub- terranean life years longer than that of numerous other cicadas and an aerial life of a few months. Joining these two major parts of its life history are two briefer links: a few weeks late in summer when the eggs left by females inside the wood of twigs develop into minute young nymphs, which enter the ground; and a few weeks in spring when the subterranean nymphs come near the surface and become ready to emerge and transform into adults or imagoes. Some of the work done by the surface dwellers as observed at Baltimore, Md., is here de- scribed.
THE LAST DWELLING
During their years under ground the young cicadas shed from time to time, grow rapidly, and make successive mud dwellings attached to roots from which the nymphs suck their nutriment, being parasites upon many trees. In Baltimore Potter (1839) observed the largest of these dwellings some 18 inches below the surface. Each was a rough ball of earth 114 to 2 inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide, lined by smooth
mud, and contained one nymph. Emerging from such last feeding chambers the nymphs dig up- ward and construct somewhat different dwellings (Fig. 1). Within the mud tubes they rest some weeks till ready for emergence and transforma- tion. These last dwellings have the advantage of safety some inches below the surface, along with quick access to the surface when the proper time comes. Each dwelling (Fig. 1) has rounded ends above and below as in previous subterranean dwellings, but these are connected by a long shaft and are commonly 150 to 350 mm long, though they may be longer or much shorter. In this shaft the lymph climbs up close to the surface or falls rapidly down to the bottom to escape attacks. In cross section the shaft is circular or sometimes elliptical, being wider than deep, and is about either 10 or 15 mm in diameter. Dwellings of these two sizes occur in the same places, but one or the other predominates, a fact that harmonizes with the occurrence here of a larger and a smaller variety of cicada of which one or the other is more abundant under certain trees. Also the larger bores were found where the larger cicadas emerged; that is, the bores were made to fit the cicadas.
| January 1955 ANDREWS: _ The lining of the shaft is smooth mud a few : millimeters thick, sharply defined from the _ lumen, but fading off gradually into the surround- - ing earth. Shafts are by no means always straight, or of uniform diameter, but may be sinuous and present swollen regions 20 mm wide. But I have not seen regular swellings near the upper end, as noted in another part of Maryland by Snodgrass (1921). Following his method we filled shafts under a purple beech tree with plaster of Paris and obtained such demonstrations of the abun- dance and character of these dwellings as shown in Fig. 2. The topsoil was such a mass of small stones and roots as to indicate that the nymph must have cut off small roots in order to advance so many inches. Large obstacles were often
Fic. 1.—Plaster cast of common or typical dwelling showing bottom chamber, long shaft, and dome above connected to surface by short exit passageway added by escaping larva. One- half natural size.
WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 21
nine natural association, lengths, widths, and shapes, but with upper ends obscured in excess surface plaster. About half natural size. Photograph by Charles H. Weber.
Fre. 2.—Plaster cast of dwellings in
avoided by change of direction, but at times small stones or roots projected into the lumen, covered with lining mud, and reduced the cavity from its normal 15 mm to a mere 10 mm in diameter. Staining of the plaster casts by topsoil or by clay showed that the lining material came from that level and was not brought up from below, which is in harmony with descriptions of the way in which cicada dwellings are made, namely, by forcing the earth laterally aside into its walls and not by carrying it away, as is done by many burrowing animals.
The chief implements used in making cavities in the earth, according to Marlatt (1907) and Snodgrass (1921), who observed the work in vessels of loose earth, are the big first legs (Fig. 3). Here, as in the other legs, the terminal segment is used chiefly in walking and may be folded down when not needed; the second segment from the tip is used to pick off particles of earth. The third segment is the largest and like a powerful thumb acts with the opposing second as a forceps to pick up pellets of earth and small stones. The minute particles picked loose from the earth are raked together by the tip segment to make a pellet, which the forceps can carry or shove into the walls of the cavity. However, all parts of the
22, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fie. 3. Snodgrass’s sketch of inner face of first right leg, or claw, of cicada pupa. The thickest segment is the femur, the next pointed segment the tibia, and the small final segment the tarsus.
body may come into use, for the hind legs and the abdomen may help shove earth aside and the head may carry earth plastered upon it. In vertical] tunnels the animal braces its legs against the sides and, if disturbed, relaxes and drops down.
Finally completed, the last dwelling (Fig. 1) ends above and below in swellings similar to the ends of the preceding feeding dwellings. The lower cavity may be called the chamber and the upper one the dome. The lower chamber is large enough to allow the nymph to turn about and commonly is flattened below, as if to allow the nymph to rest upon a fiat surface. Often the chamber slants upward to the shaft, as in Fig. 1, but sometimes the chamber is but the enlarged bottom of the vertical shaft and not turned to one side. The inner linings of both chamber and dome are of the same smoothness as in the shaft. Some measurements of these chambers were: Lengths, 24, 30, 60, 70 mm; widths and heights, 15 or 20 mm. The dome or top of such dwellings
VOL. 45, No. 1
comes remarkably near the surface of the earth without breaking through, leaving but a few millimeters of earth till the time for transforma- tion, when the nymph digs its way out. The axis of the dome may be vertical, as in Fig. 4, or horizontal, as in Fig. 6. In the larger nymphs the claws may be stretched out 5 or 6 mm ahead of the animal, which so might receive sensory im- pressions of obstacles, or of the near surface, and then stop or turn aside; but when it turns aside horizontally, as in Fig. 6, when still 20 mm beneath the surface, it may be the warmth of the surface earth that influences the animal.
Examination of very many tubular dwellings, as well as their plaster casts, shows that, as with many small boring animals, closely neighboring cavities do not interconnect, but each has its own individual upper end and exit and along its course avoids contact with other dwellings though they often run close together. In such shafts as shown in Fig. 5 a common exit might have easily been made. While some unusual dwellings do run horizontally close to the surface, IT saw none with the sharp U turn indicated in the picturesque illustration printed by Lander (1894). Yet there were some noteworthy abnormalities; thus in Fig. 7 the lower end of the dwelling is bifurcated; there is a normal chamber on the right and a supernumerary one on the left, as if two cicadas digging upward made two chambers that chanced to meet and were then continued as a single shaft.
A second bifurcation was found in granular red subsoil that had lain some years over topsoil. In this example the more normal chamber was 20 mm long and 15 mm wide and deep and inclined as usual, but the smaller extra chamber was
ee mht
.
A ate Jatt “ie i
bar
Fic. 4.—Upper end of shaft and dome coming up near to surface of soil. One-half natural size.
JaNuARY 1955
Fie. 5—Two shafts ending in domes converg- ing as if to have a common exist at surface. One- half natural size.
horizontal, at right angles to the shaft. Both chambers had flat bottoms roughened by par- ticles fallen down the shaft before plaster was poured in.
IMPEDIMENTS TO THE MAKING OF DWELLINGS
In the red clay subsoil a cicada encountered a large slab of partly decayed wood, 30 mm thick, and continued its shaft through it and on up near to the surface. Also, under a privet hedge cicadas coming up under stiff flat dead leaves lying close on the surface continued their shafts through the leaves. Under a copper beech tree we placed obstacles on the surface of the ground: sheets of writing paper, brown paper, and carton pieces. When these lay long in contact with moist earth the cicadas, concealed below, destroyed their domes and dug round holes through the obstacles, even when many sheets were together, though when the obstacle was thick carton with heavy brown-paper surface and thick corrugated in- terior the cicadas merely bored diagonally in but not through. Having perforated the obstacle, the cicadas deposited pellets and some liquid mud
Fic. 6.—A 10-mm shaft turned nearly parallel to surface of earth. One-half natural size.
ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 23
above the surface to form a new dome, as in the sectional view (Fig. 13). Stout paraffin
paper lying under a pear tree was riddled with many round holes each surmounted with a thim- ble of mud.
We observed that under brick walks a few cicadas managed to find a way between bricks to the surface, and under large stones, logs, and
Fie. 7.—Plaster cast of abnormal dwelling with two chambers joined to a single shaft. One-half natural size.
planks many came up and then turned off horizontally. It may be many inches before they chance to come to an edge of the obstacle, when they then build upward again on the free surface as a new dome, standing forth into the air, but attached to the face of the obstacle. Under a thin sheet of metal covering about 1 square foot we saw many straight and curved shafts running in all directions, intermingled but each independent of others, some coming shortly to a free edge and others wandering far. Here there seemed no indi-
24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fia. 8.—Photograph of four aerial structures (upper right of red clay) showing size, surface, form, and closed tops (except lower right, open on other side). One-half natural size. Photograph by Charles H. Weber.
cation that the cicadas found escape except by accident. But in some instances it seemed that the cicadas were guided by sunlight. Under a beehive, 40 by 50 cm, cicadas came up in six shafts, 11 to 85 em deep, and, encountering the bottom of the hive built on horizontally exten- sions of the shafts, stuck to and suspended from the hive bottom like the work of termites or certain wasps. Though the hive contacted the earth about most of its edge, the west face was held up by bricks about 25 mm, so that light entered on that side. Three or four of the hori- zontal structures were aimed more to the west, the others had little length and seemed closed; while the longer ones had opened at the west end. The structure of these suspended mud tubes was that of the mud towers to be deserived later, with only a very thin mud lining against the roofing wood and the other walls, the mud being brought there and manipulated. A long row of beehives rested upon two parallel joists, 314 by
VOL. 45, NO. I
114 inches and 12 feet long, lying in contact with the earth and 10 inches apart and nearly east and west. When these joists were raised, many shafts were revealed, which turned off horizontally along under the joist. Under the northern joist, which was kept quite in the shade by the hives above it, 22 shafts ran from south to north and 19 from north to south, suggesting no guidance.
Under the southerly joist, which early in spring received sunshine before an overhanging apple tree was in leaf, the number going north was 14, south 68—a decided preference for the south direction. As no light entered between joist and earth, we infer the sunlight influenced the cicadas by warming the face of the joist toward which they were thus guided. Temperatures ob- tained on April 14, 1954, when the joist still lay in place were-as follows: At noon along south side of joist in sunshine air read 34°C., along north side, in shade of joist, 28°C. Thermometer bulb under south edge of joist read 29°C. and under north side 28°C. However, late in May, when air was 21° to 24°, the temperature under the joist was 16° to 18°, with no difference between north and south, as leaf shade kept the earth cool.
AERIAL DWELLINGS
Thus the last dwelling of the subterranean nymph is not necessarily restricted to the earth but may be continued up into the air. In fact, aerial extensions maz be abundant and of great interest and are well known as turrets, towers, cones, chimneys, huts, and adobe houses. Perhaps the term ‘spigot holes” may refer to such aerial structures. If so, it is the earliest reference to
ree
wae
Fic. 9.—Vertical section of an aerial dwelling with shaft ending as a dome arched over with applied earth material. One-half natural size.
JANUARY 1955
ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA
bo or
Fic. 10—Photograph of three aerial structures; lower left, with dead leaves in walls and showing where one was pulled off a hole into lumen of shaft. Lower right, a lump as wide as tall closed as yet at top; upper, a sample of thimble called forth by presence of sheets of paper on surface of
earth. One-half natural size.
them; it was used, as quoted by Marlatt (1907), by Thomas Mathews in 1705, writing of a swarm of cicadas in Virginia about the year 1675.
Probably the first illustration of such aerial dwellings was the above mentioned sketch by Lander (1894). Since then good photographs have been published. As shown in Fig. 8, made in Baltimore in 1953, these are large cylinders or cones of mud rough externally as made of pellets stuck together. The material may be topsoil or subsoil or mixtures of both, and some of it seems to have been flowing when applied. Some towers lean over but do not break even when nearly horizontal, which recalls the surmise made by Lander (1894) that the mud material was mingled with some cement supplied by the cicada. Several hundred pellets are seen in one tower, but others are concealed or fused together into larger lumps. These mud houses are durable. Some made late in April 1953 were still recognizable late in January 1954 where protected by dead leaves under privet hedges, despite rain, snow, frost, and thawing.
The walls (Fig. 9) are dense mud, not natural soil, externally more or less made of pellets but internally lined with the same smooth layer found in the underground parts of the dwelling. Rarely small sticks or leaves are incorporated in the walls, and stiff vertical dead leaves may form part of the lining, so that when torn away a hole is opened into the lumen, as in lower left of Fig. 10. When a tower was built up under layers of paper they were cut through and the tower com-
pleted above them, leaving the dome sticking up above the paper as in Fig. 11. As seen by com- paring Figs. 9, 11, 12, and 13 with 4, the dome of aerial extensions is just like that of subterranean dwellings.
In size these aerial dwellings vary much in any locality, and some localities show an average different from that of some other locality. Thus 159 under separated box trees ranged in height from 15 to 90 mm, in width from 15 to 40 mm; with bores from 9 to 15 mm, thickness of roof of dome from 1 to 5mm, exit hole from 6 to 15 mm. While under box trees grown as a hedge, 355 ranged in height from 30 to 100 mm, in width from 25 to 35 mm. Again under apple trees the range in height of 136 was from 15 to 100, in width from 10 to 40, with the bores from 7 by 9 to 15 mm.
FUSED AERIAL DWELLINGS
Often shafts are so close together that when extended into the air their walls stick together as one mass with from 2 to 10 separate domes. When but two (Fig. 14) they fuse all along one side only, though in exceptions (Figs. 15 and 16) a pair may lean together and fuse only above or may fuse below and diverge widely above. When several fuse a short dome may be overarched by a taller and so, apparently, the inmate cut off from escape except by digging through the taller neighboring dome. In fact, late in summer one such instance suggested that the inmate had died within unable to escape. However, several others
26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
x
Tiss
f sf
Fic. 11.—Vertical section of an aerial dwelling built up under three layers of paper through which it was continued to end as a dome. One-half natural size.
were found closed with no such cause for failure to escape.
Very rarely was there evidence that cicada nymphs ever made any use of their neighbors’ work; in one instance three shafts had but two exits since one inmate had opened its shaft into that of a neighbor. Fig. 14 shows a certain economy of building materia] resulting from the crowding of neighbors, there being no room for the usual thick wall, only a thin party wall was built between neighbors. Such economy may lead to the observed fact that in some aggregates the entire weight is less than the combined weights of as many separate structures of similar heights.
ESTIMATES OF WORK DONE
Cicadas are muscular animals; even the slow nymphs underground move from place to place, build feeding chambers, suck sap and inject liquid to aid in feeding, and finally construct elongated dwellings that may extend up into the
Fra. 12.—Five layers of paper over a concealed shaft were cut through to end as a dome, not yet quite finished late in summer. One-half natural size.
VOL. 45, No. I
air. This enables one, by weighing the earth deposited, to estimate some of the energy ex- pended in carrying earth upward several inches. Some of these deposits under apple, beech, and English box trees were collected and weighed, with ranges from 4 to 274 grams each. In all, 1,116 of these came from under box trees, 149 in number, covering a sum of areas measured as about one-thirteenth of an acre. They weighed 16,578 grams, or about 28 pounds; 1.e., at the rate of 364 pounds per acre. However, a correction is necessary since the dwellings were weighed after air drying all summer, but when originally carried up by the cicadas they were wet. When 20 dry dwellings were dipped in water and drained it was found they had taken up 25 to 35 per cent of their weight. Again 20 were ground to powder and weighed as water was added. When the mass was plastic enough to be made into pellets with the fingers, 39 per cent water had been taken up; with more water the mass lost form and began
Fig. 13.—Two layers of paper over a conceaeled dome were cut through to form a dome above those obstacles. One-half natural size.
to flow when 48 per cent had been taken up. So we add at least one-third, or considering that some of the cicadas’ material is liquid, as much as 40 per cent to the above dry weights, making thus, roughly, 500 pounds per acre, mined, brought up some inches, and deposited as dwelling walls.
AND CONDITIONS IN HOUSES ARE
PLACES WHICH AERIAL
MADE
In this arable soil aerial dwellings appear only in places that were shaded in April, under a building supported on brick pillars; under its eastern eaves shaded by evergreen privet; under the wooden steps of east and west ends of ele- vated wooden porch; but not under the porch itself where abundant in 1936 when adjacent bushes had not been removed; under English ivy covering the ground; under dense growth of dead nettle (Lamiwm purpurem 1.), under north face
JANUARY 1955 ANDREWS: of privet hedge, and under its south face where dead leaves had collected; under evergreen cane and bamboo; under apple, beech, and English box trees. Also in the following peculiar con- ditions: under a board 16 inches wide and 19 feet long, supported at the ends 27 inches above the earth, surrounded by apple trees showing no aerial structures at all. In this faint shade, es- pecially near its northerly edge, many fine dwellings were built up. When we moved this board 2 feet to the north, many soft new towers arose in the new shade.
The making of aerial dwellings by providing artificial shade was evoked as follows: Early in April a large zine tub was overturned under one of the above apple trees known to have many sub- terranean dwellings under it and at length, April 29, a tower 2 inches in height arose under the
Fic. 14.—Cross section of two narrow shafts of aerial dwellings that coalesced with only a thin party-wall between. One-half natural size.
tub the night previous. This bent over nearly horizontally, and by May 3 the inmate had re- moved the old dome and added pellets making a new dome.! In a henyard, where there were only concealed dwellings, scraping the surface re- vealed 36 shafts thus opened, May 6; these were covered over with a large zinc tub making a dark space within which the next morning 30 soft dwellings had been built into the air, but outside the tub there were none. In the same region a number of chimneys arose from a square foot of hard earth when covered with a wooden trough. The previously described structures (p. 24), under joists, etc., are essentially aerial towers
1 Whether in light or darkness each aerial dwell- ing is closed above, and if the old dome is removed a new one is made at once. Thus under dense lamium shade removal of domes was followed the next night by the making of new ones in most all the dark cavities formed by placing small tin cans, 4 by 2 inches, over the opened shafts. And under apple trees where the earth was very wet removal of 40 towers to reveal open shafts resulted the next morning, May 3, in the appearance of nearly
as many new structures made within such cans and 3-inch flowerpots.
WORK OF
“lI
PERIODICAL CICADA yA,
Fic. 15.—Two aerial dwellings leaning to- gether and coalescing above. Both closed above. Lining indicated by broken lines. One-half natural size.
built in the dark and forced into horizontal postures. HOW ARE AERIAL DWELLINGS MADE?
The aerial dwellings are built up rapidly in the night when no one has observed how, but we assume that they are made much as are the former feeding chambers, for knowledge of which we rely on the above-mentioned observations of Marlatt and Snodgrass. To this we add the fol- lowing: In 1902 we saw cicadas, placed in tubes
Fia. 16.—Aerial dwellings of a larger and a smaller variety built close together and then diverging widely. The large on the left is open at top. A small stick was built into both where di- verging. One-half natural size.
28
of loose earth, place mud onto the right and the left sides of the face and so carried it up to make pellets; also some huts found late in summer, 1953, with partly finished still-open domes sug- gest how domes are made in the air. Each (Fig. 12) had across its summit an open slit about 10 by 5 and 6 mm with very thin edges, not more than 0.5 mm. As yet no pellets had been placed over the top of the dome. We imagine the claws would reach out of the slit to apply mud, that the slender tarsus would be used in troweling the mud, and that water was supplied by the cicada nymph.
CONCLUSION
The last dwellings of seventeen-year cicadas are of interest as showing what insects can do with tools; as examples in the comparative architecture of dwellings of small animals; as a means for estimating some of the energy ex- pended; and as beneficial factors in the life of these plant parasites. Also it is noteworthy that in the roofs of these last subterranean dwellings only a thin layer of earth remains to be per- forated for egress into the air above; and that this advantage is persistently maintained under the diverse conditions we have described and illustrated.
When over 60 or more acres of woodland the earth is riddled with borings such as indicated in Fig. 2, the effects must be considerable, for these holes remain open for a year or more admitting air and surplus rain and serving for roots and for many insects, spiders, and other small forest creatures. Again, when towers of mud weighing perhaps 500 pounds per acre are deposited, ulti- mately to be disintegrated on the surface, thus “nlowing” the earth after the manner of earth- worms, there seems compensation for the injury done in sucking root sap and injury to twigs.
Why at some times and places the last dwell- ings are extended as aerial structures, huts, or towers is a question needing solution through experimentation.
It has been thought that these aerial dwellings were due to water, to peculiar soil, or to tempera- ture. But in Baltimore the earth was no wetter where towers appeared than in nearby regions where subterranean dwellings sufficed—except only one place where surface water under an apple tree made a wet basis for towers, but here there was also shade in April, and this as well as
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. I wetness may have acted by lowering the earth temperatures below that within the towers up in the warm air. Cicadas are parasites upon plants, drinking sap not only when young nymphs but when adults. That the oldest nymphs near the surface also drink sap is inferred but not demon- strated. That they are not necessarily restricted to sap for needed water is shown by the following experiment: Nymphs dug from their concealed shafts near the surface were kept some days in dry earth, each in a hole simulating a shaft, and then put onto garden earth. They at once thrust their beaks deep into the earth and, as if thirsty, stood long in the drinking attitude assumed by adults sucking sap from trees. Apparently they sucked moisture from the earth. Though they had been kept in darkness they had not erected aerial dwellings, nor had most of them even made domes over the holes they were in, presumably lacking sufficient water for such work. That liquid from the earth may be used by old nymphs for their building needs is implied in their long life near the surface when the earth is moist and there may be no roots to suck, as in the instance described above where they lived in granular red clay subsoil free from roots. It seems probable much of the liquid needed for mud making and even for self maintenance is derived from the earth.
With water constituting a third or more of the aerial dwellings, it is evident wet soil is needed for such work. As part of these aerial structures seems to be liquid mud and as we do not know how cicadas can carry liquid mud, we assume that they made the earth liquid when they used it. All through cicada life liquid is freely drunk and freely expelled, since, as described by Myers (1928), the cicada has a remarkable filtering apparatus that lets liquid pass rapidly out. Hence, whenever cicadas have liquid to drink they have it to expel.
When the actual process of hut-building is observed we anticipate it will be seen that the cicada uses both ends of its body, somewhat as we observed (1911) certain termites do when building in Jamaica.
Temperature has much to do with emergence, as shown when pipes heated the earth and cicadas emerged a year in advance. Hopkins (1898) ob- served in West Virginia that emergence was earlier where warmth was greater, either from lower altitude or from a more southern location.
JANUARY 1955
Krumbach (1917) kept detailed records of temperatures in part of a botanical garden in Austria-Hungary, watched 27 cicadas emerge during 27 days, and also noted they emerged later in the shade of a wall. He was of the opinion that temperature was the important factor in bringing them forth. During the period of emergence temperatures were as follows: a meter above ground 11.2° to 19.2° minimum and 31.6° to 35° maximum; at the surface 10.8° to 16.2° minimum; down in the earth 300 mm 25.3° to 26.6°; down 600 mm 21.4° to 26.2°; down 1 meter 19.7° to Bool.
Applying the above to our cicadas it may be that they were influenced by temperature gradients in coming up toward the surface and by surface temperature in emergence; also that a cicada in a tower might well be warmer than one beneath the surface. Lander (1894) studied cicadas near Nyack, N. Y., and concluded that the chimneys were built as places to cool off in, for he argued the very warm spring had unduly heated the trap rock, smoothed by glaciers, underlying the thin soil. But as no thermometer readings are given we are free to assume that the thin clay soil would not drain well into the glaciated rock but would hold the melted winter snow and be cold from evaporation, whereas cicadas up in towers would be warmed by the sun- shine of an exceptionally warm spring.
That cicadas may get higher temperatures up in towers than down below is indicated by some experiments made in February and March 1954 at one of the spots in which chimneys had arisen in April 1953, which showed that a thermometer placed in a dry chimney over a hole resembling a cicada shaft registered 4° or 5° higher than down 1 to 7 inches in the earth, but only 1° lower than the warmer air. Thus on March 29, 1954, when the surface temperature of the earth was 28° in full sunshine, the temperature of the air was 19°, within the chimney 18°, at the surface 13°, down 12 inches 12°C.: in the shade of the same evergreen privet in which chimneys were made in 1953. This makes credible the view that in 1953 cicadas there found temperatures in their chimneys higher than below ground and com- parable with that of the surface in full sunshine.
Moreover, as described above (p. 23), cicadas meeting certain obstacles continued their shafts horizontally as modified chimneys to the limit of the obstacle and then upward again to end with a
ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 29
normal dome. Temperature taken there a year later showed that the sunshine warmed one face of the obstacle and that the cicadas, in the dark, ina majority of instances, built toward the higher temperature.
We advance the hypothesis that the chief factor in inducing the cicada to extend its last dwelling into the air is temperature; in the shade or under other conditions when the surface earth is not warm enough, a higher temperature is at- tained up in turrets surrounded with warm air.
Though most of the cicada’s life with its growth and shedding is spent down in lower temperatures, we assume that higher tempera- tures are attained and probably needed for the final perfection of internal organs not needed in previous subterranean life. To test this hypothe- sis, temperatures might be obtained in air, on the surface, and beneath the ground over an area where cicadas are expected to issue soon. Such data might well indicate where aerial dwellings would arise and where only subterranean dwell- ings would be found.
LITERATURE CITED
AnpREws, E. A. Observations on Jamaica. Journ. Animal Behavior 1: 228. 1911.
Periodical cicadas in Baltimore, Md. Sei.
Monthly 12: 310-320. 1921.
. The seventeen year cicada, alias locust. Quart. Rev. Biol. 12: 271-293. 1937.
Horxins, A. D. The periodical cicada in West Virginia. West Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 50: 46 pp., 23 figs., 1 map, 4 pls. 1898.
Krumpacu, T. Zur Naturgeschichte der Sing- cicaden 1m Roten Istrien. Zool. Anz. 48: 241— 250. 1917.
Lanper, B. Hut-building seventeen-year cicadas. Sci. American 71: 233-234. 1894.
Maruattr, C. L. The periodical cicada. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Entomology, Bull. 71: 181 pp. 1907.
Marruews, Tuomas. Swarms of cicadas as one of the three prodigies appearing in Virginia about 1675. (Quoted in ‘‘A Library of Ameri- can Literature,” ed. by E. C. Stedman and E. M. Hutchinson, vol. 1: 462-468. 1887.)
Myers, J. G. The morphology of the Cicadidae (Homoptera). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1928: 365-472, 75 figs.
Porter, N. Notes on the Locusta septentrionalis americanae decem septima: 27 pp., 1 pl. Baltimore, 1839.
Snoperass, R. E. The _ seventeen-year locust. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Institution for 1919: 381-409, illus. 1921.
termites in 193-
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 45, No. 1
ICHTHYOLOGY —Flatfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S.S. Albatross Expedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. Pau CuapaNnaup. (Translated by Mme. Patricia Isham.) (Communicated by Leonard P. Schultz.)
Max Weber and L. F. de Beaufort,! who published the most recent summary of the fish fauna of the Indo-Australian Archi- pelago, mention only three species in the genus Symphurus: S. regant Weber and de Beaufort, S. giles? (Alcock), and S. micro- rhynchus Weber and de Beaufort. An additional species, S. marmoratus Fowler, was described from Jolo Island, Philippines. No less than six species are represented among the 139 Symphurus specimens captured between April 10, 1908, and December 16, 1909, in that archipelago or its immediate environs between lat. 20° 37 N., long. 115° 43” EK, and lat. 5° 24’ S., long. 122° 18’ 15” E., by the U. 5. Bureau of Fisheries steamer Albatross in the course of its successive cruises, which, altogether, constituted the Albatross Expedition to the Philippines (1907-1910). I cannot thank too warmly Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, Curator, Division of Fishes, U. 8. National Museum, for his favor in trusting to me the study of this material of exceptional scientific value and interest. Also I thank Mme. Patricia Isham for translating this paper.
Among the three species captured by the Siboga in 1899-1900, and mentioned or described by Weber and de Beaufort, only Symphurus regani was found again by the Albatross. However, the investigations of the latter ship augmented the fauna of the Indo-Australian Archipelago by three species, S. woodmasoni (Alcock), S. sep- temstriatus (Alcock), and S. strictus Gilbert, that are more or less widely scattered in the tropical Indo-Pacific complex, and by two new species, S. schultzi and S. luzonensis, which are described in the lines that follow.
In reality, S. woodmasoni was captured by the Szboga in the Banda Sea; but the unique specimen is mentioned by Weber, without determination (Szboga, Fishes, 1913: 445, No. 4).
The following abbreviations are used: A, anal fin; C, caudal fin; D, dorsal fin (also the letter D indicates dissection); Mx, Maxillary; R precedes the meristic formula
1The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago 5: 208-211. 1929.
determined from radiography; S, number of scales, counted between the vertical of the opercular opening and the base of the caudal fin; V, pelvic fin; n, blind side; z, eyed side.
The position of the caudal extremity of the maxillary (Mx) on the eyed side is indicated in the following fashion: I, in front of the vertical of the anterior border of the fixed eye; II, underneath the anterior half of the fixed eye; III, underneath the posterior half of the fixed eye; IV, in back of the fixed eye. The intermediary positions are indicated IVAN UUAQUL, evare) INLAY
The same symbols determine the position of the first dorsal ray (D 1), in relation to the movable eye.
The formula for number of vertebrae conforms with the example: a 9 [3 + 6] + c44 = t53. The letter a means number of abdominal vertebrae. The letter c means number of caudal vertebrae. The letter ¢ indicates the total of the preceding numbers. The numbers put between brackets [38 + 6] analyze the composition of the abdominal vertebrae. The first number (3) is that of the vertebrae deprived of the hemal arch; the second (6) that of the vertebrae that possess that arch. In all the Symphurus, except individual abnormalities not yet found, all the abdominal hemal arches are closed by distal codssification of the two hemitoxes’.
Symphurus woodmasoni (Alcock, 1889)
D 91-99. A 78-86. C 14. V 4. 8 80-90 (+2). Mx: II-III (1I/IV*%). D 1: ILIII (IL/IV’®). In hundredths of the standard length: head 20- 25; height 23-26 (27-29). In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 12-14(15); space between the eyes 0; C 52-76 (90-115*). In hundredths of the body height: height of D or of A 36-45. In alcohol the eyed side is of bright reddish
2Cf. Chabanaud, Morphologie comparée des arcs hémaux abdominaux des téléostéens symétriques et dyssymétriques. C. R. Acad. Sci. 233: 1393, eff. 5. 1951.
3 Only one case.
4 When its length does not attain about 60 percent of that of the head, the caudal fin can be considered deteriorated.
JANUARY 1955
brown, generally even, but often enough varied with dark brown marblelike veins. The fins are brown, more or less dark, but becoming lighter from front to back, so the caudal fin is often colorless. The blind side is colorless and the reddish tint of the musculature is readily visible. The peritoneum is generally black.
Number of specimens studied: 85. Standard length (largest observed): #103 mm; 9121 mm. Sex ratio (82 observations): 28; 9254.
Vertebrae (6 observations): 50-52, 9 of which
{3 + 6] abdominal.
Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations®: U.S.N.M. 138049, station 5247, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138058, station 5402, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388062, station 5403, 7 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138034, station 5404, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138035, station 5405, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138036, station 5409, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138038, station 5412, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138039, station 5418, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138059, station 5501, a specimens; U.S.N.M. 138060, station 5502, specimens; Bee 138061, station 5503, 2 22 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138041, station 5508, 1 specimen; U.S.N ae 138021, station 5516, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138048, station 5537, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138047, station 5538, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 188051, station 5623, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 188052, station 5626, 1
specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388056, 1 specimen from Philippines without locality.
Symphurus schultzi, n. sp.
D 85-87: A 72-75. C 14. V 4. 8S + 70-80. Mx IL. D 1: IJ/IIE-III/1IV. In hundredths of the standard length: head 21-25; height 24-30. In hundredths of the head length: eyes 17-19; interorbital space 0; C 50-62. In hundredths of the body height: height of D 42-47. In alcohol: The eyed side is an even reddish brown, now light, now dark; the fins are more or less brown or blackish, progressively lighter from front to back. The blind side is pale or pigmented. The peritoneum is black. On two dissected specimens, US.N.M. 138046 and 138057 the vertebrae number 48 of which a 9 [3 + 6] are abdominal.
Named in honor of Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, United States National Museum, S. schultzi differs from S. woodmasoni in the fewer rays, D (85-87, instead of 91-99); A (72-75 instead of 78-86), and by its eyes that
®> Albatross
published in: Rept. 1-97. Nov. 29, 1910.
dredging station records were Comm. Fish., 1910 (741):
CHABANAUD: FLATFISHES OF GENUS SYMPHURUS 31
appear a little larger (17-19 hundredths of the head length instead of 12-15), also in fewer vertebrae (48 instead of 50-52), the formula of the abdominal vertebrae is the same 9 [3 + 6].
This species is described from 5 specimens, 2 #7 and 3 2°; maximum standard length # 70 mm., @ 64 mm.
Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations: U.S.N.M. 138044, holotype; ¢@, sta- tion 5508. Paratypes: U.S.N.M. 138025, Station 5201; U.S.N.M. 138033, Station 5373; U.S.N.M. 138057, St. 5506; U.S.N.M. 138046, Station 5536.
Symphurus septemstriatus (Alcock, 1891)
D 93-101. A 81-89. C 12. V 4. S 96-100. Mx, (1/II*) II-III. D 1: IL-II/III (IIs). In hundredths of the standard length: head 18-22; height 21-27. In hundredths of the length of the head: eye (12) 14-18 (19); interorbital space 0; C 60-86. In hundredths of the body height: height of D or of A 36-41. In alcohol, the eyed side is of reddish brown, more or less clear with nebulous dark brown areas, arranged in transverse bands; rarely indistinct, and numbering about 7 to 12, between the operculum and the base of C; fins brownish, pale towards the rear. The blind side is usually reddish brown, lighter than the eyed side, but always of uniform color. Peritoneum is black.
Specimens studied numbered 38; maximum standard length # 78 mm. @ 77 mm. Sex ratio for 33 observations: @ 21, 9 12. Vertebrae (4 observations): a 9 [8 + 6] + c 44 = t 53 (3 individuals), a 9 [8 + 6] + c 45 = ¢ 54 (1 individual).
Record of specimens for Albatross dredging
stations: U.S.N.M. 138026, station 5216, 4 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138023, station 5265, 2 specimens, U.S.N.M. 138043, station 5268, 2
specimens; U.S.N.M. 138028, station 5298, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138029, station 5301, 1
specimen; U.S.N.M. station 138040, station 5326, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138042, station 5387, 16 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138041, station 5388, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138031, station 5391, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138032, station 5392, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138035, station 5405, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388037, station 5411, 1. specimen; U.S.N.M. 138038, station 5412, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138060, station 5502, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138044, station 5508, 1 specimen.
5 Only one case.
32
Symphurus regani Weber and Beaufort, 1929
D 103-104. A 89-92. C 14. V 4.8 + 100. Mx III. D 1: I-II. In hundredths of the standard length: head 17; height 24-26. In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 15; interorbital space 0; caudal fin + 73. In hundredths of the body height: height of D or of A: + 30. In alcohol, the eyed side is of an even reddish brown, not dark, the fins dark brown. The blind side is colorless or whitish.
Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations: U.S.N.M. 1388045, station 5526, 1 @ specimen, 112 mm _ standard length, R:a 10 [8 + 7] + ¢ 47 = t 57; US.N.M. 188053, station 5646, 1 @ specimen, 122 mm, R:a 10 [8 + 7] + c¢ 47 = € 57; US.N.M. 138054, station 5647, 1 @ specimen, 96 mm. R:a 10 [8 +7] + c47 =t 57.
Symphurus luzonensis, n. sp.
Holotype &. Total length 80 mm. Standard length 72 mm. Length of the head 13 mm. D 99. A 84. C 12. V 4.8 104. Mx II. D 1:I1/UI. In hundredths of the standard length: head 18; height 23. In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 14; interorbital space 0; C 61. In hundredths of the body height, height of D or of A 38. In alcohol, the eyed side is of a light reddish brown; fins pale; blind side colorless. U.S.N.M. 138043, holotype from Station 5268, @ speci- men, R:a 10 [4 + 6] + c 42 5 ¢t 52.
Captured near the island of Luzon, the holotype of Symphurus luzonensis differs from
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 45, No. 1
S. regani in the fewer rays of its three median fins, notably of C (12 instead of 14); also by its caudal vertebrae (42 instead of 46 or 47), the formula for abdominal vertebrae are the same, a 10 [4 + 6], proof of the close affinity existing between these two species.
Symphurus strictus Gilbert, 1905
D 116-121. A 101-106. C (13) 14. V (8) 4.78 130-140. Mx II-III. D 1:I-II. In hundredths of the standard length: head 15-18; height 21-24 (27). In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 11-14; interorbital space 0; C ? Inhundredths of the body height: height of D or of A 33. In alcohol the eyed side is evenly bright red, with the fins brownish grey, becoming lighter from front to back. The peritoneum is black. Blind side same color as eyed side, but a little lighter.
Seven specimens studied, 4 @ and 3 9Q. Standard length (maxima observed): @ 126 mm; ? 86mm.
Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations: U.S.N.M. 138024, station 5269, 1 ¢ specimen; U.S.N.M. 138027, station 5290, 1 ¢# specimen, R:a 9 [3 + 6] + ¢52 =t61; US.N.M. 138030, station 5294,1 2 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138022, station 5589, 1 o&, R:a 9 [8 + 6] + c 62 = t 61; US.N.M. 138050, station 5621, 1 @ specimen; U.S.N.M. 152779, station 5623, 1 @ specimen; U.S.N.M. 138055, station 5645, 1 & specimen.
7C 13, for U.S.N.M. 138024. V 3, for U.S.N.M. 138050.
MALACOLOGY .—Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones. J. P. E.
Morrison, U. 8. National Museum.
The subgenus Gastridiwm Modeer (Sven- ska Vet.-Akad. Handl. (n. s.) 14: 196. 1793) includes a few relatively large but thin-shelled species of the genus Conus. It is probable that these species are more active and much more rapid in growth of shell than the great majority of cone species. One species somewhat smaller than the genotype of Gastridium (Conus geographus Linnaeus) but most closely related to it, and therefore to be handled with equal caution against its poison bite, is without a valid scientific name.
The earliest name Conus geographus rosea Sowerby (Conch. Illus., pt. 32: fig. 33. 1833) was twice preoccupied by C. roseus Fischer, 1807, and Lamarck, 1810. The next name given, Conus intermedius Reeve (Conch. Icon.: pl. 28, fig. 129. 1843) is preoccupied
by the name C. intermedius Lamarck, 1810. Likewise the third name Conus mappa Crosse (Rev. Mag. Zool. (2d ser.) 10: 200, 205. 1858), given as a nomen novum for intermedius Reeve, is preoccupied by the name Conus mappa Solander (in Humphrey, Portland Catalogue: 116, No. 2554. 1786). This poison cone is here given the new name Conus (Gastridium) eldredi, in honor of my
brother Lt. Cmdr. R. Ray Eldred Morrison | (U.S.N.R.), who collected the species at
Abamama in the Gilbert Islands in 1944. This new name may commemorate in a small way the considerable contributions to the knowledge of mollusks made by interested members of the United States Armed Forces (both regular and reserve) during World War II.
Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
Praslent 2256002 Se sesh eee Francis M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards Pavectdert-eleck.. 65. cece e Sees MarGaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health SOTA es Seas ee eee ee Jason R. Swatuen, U.S. National Museum PUROGSUTET.<..- 25: : Howarp §S. Rappierg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) ERREIC URS EAI on, oi NS ore SSS bee Gls NERO Sale « JoHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station
Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidenis Representing the Affiliated Societies:
Philosophical Society of Washington... ............5:. 26: eens ee: S. E. Forsuss Anthropological Society of Washington.................. ..Wituiam H. GILBERT Esolovical Society of Washingtone 02.2 eet esae eds ce ne Wiuuram A. Dayton MhemicaliSocieuy OL WaShINftON. o. 6 5. wesc ones whee nee JoHN KX. TAYLOR Baomolorical Society of Washington. ...-.-.2.-.---..s0-+22---- 56s F, W. Poos Netional Geographic Society.............20..eeeeene seed ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington......................--+0-: ARTHUR A. BAKER Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................. FREDERICK O. CoE Metumbra Historical ‘Society: ..... . 0s ccsee es eee eet ene GILBERT GROSVENOR Berimical society of Washington... .....<5..2400+52.-2omencues Ler M. Hutcuins Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGE F, GRAVATT Washmeaton Society of Engineers. ...: 22.0... .65 tee ek eet C. A. Betts
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers. ARNoLp H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. DiuL
Helminthological Society of Washington........ .............. L. A. SPINDLER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......... GLENN SLocum Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers... ... HERBERT Grove DorsEy
District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine Wauter C. Hess
Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals........... JoHN G. THOMPSON Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research. 1. G. Hamprp Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences...... F. N. FRENKIEL
District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society F. W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers:
Tip since Ta ere a ea ee R. G. Bares, W. W. Dirnt ramiearier any alObON. fo) ek et Ae sian as eo ee cd M. A. Mason, R. J. Srncer BREN PENT ATVI OD «5 o66 oie 68 oc oly crd cine sgt oesSee veers A. T. McPuerson, A. B. Gurney init! Op MGC ee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor muurdomediuors and Associate Editors: i..2 3h. 286 352.08 th See ele: [See front cover] Executive Committee.............. F. M. Deranporr (chairman), MarGcarer PITTMAN,
J. R. Swauuen, H. S. Rappieye, J. A. STEVENSON Committee on Membership....H1nz Specut (chairman), Myron 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cottam, Roger W. Curtis, JoHN Faser, J. J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, Wess HayMAkeR, CLARENCE H. Horrmann, Louis R. Maxweuu, Epwarp G. REINHARD, JOHN A. SANDERSON, LEo A. SHINN, FrRANcis A. SMITH, ALFRED WEISSLER Committee on Meetings............... Dortuanp J. Davis (chairman), ALLEN VY. ASTIN, GrorceE A. Hortrie, Martin A. Mason, Wituram W. Rusey
Committee on Monographs (W1Lu1AM N. FENTON, chairman):
Th@® diensmarenreye SOE ee eee ae ca ee eee eee er WitiramM N. Fenton, ALAN STONE SRomeNrATaVal QOO Kc esc, Awe ote sk: G. ArtHur Coopmr, James I. Horrman Tho Uinmtneinyy OGY Cee a ee eerie Haratp A. Rexper, Witi1aM A. Dayton Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (RoBERT C. DuNcAN, general chairman): For Biological Sciences......Byron J. OLSON (chairman), Sara E. BRANHAM, LEE
M. Hurtcuins, FREDERICK W. Poos, BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ, T. Date Stewart
For Engineering Sciences. . ELuioTtT B. RoBERTS (chairman), CLIFFORD A. BETTs,
Josera M. CaLDWELL, MicnanLt Gotppere, Harte H. Kennarp
ARNOLD H. Scott, Horace M. Trent
For Physical Sciences......... FRANK C. Kracrxk (chairman), Winiiam HH. AVERY,
Ricwarp §. Burineton, NatHan L. Drake, Luoyp G. Henpesr,
EpeGar R. Smita, BrnsAMIN L. SNAVELY
HOV NEAChiING Of SClences.. 2) saee M.A. Mason (chairman), Keita C. JoHNsoN
Commitiee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Herpert N. Eaton (chairman),
Mario Mozart, Francis O. Rice, J. Leon SHERESHEFSKY, JAMES H TAYLOR Committee on Policy and Planning: (FRANCIS B. SInsBEE, chairman):
POPU ATU ATV ODD cise Ochs seth ata see sce eben L. W. Parr, Francis B. SILsBEE sowVanwaryelO5Gy ce a. eee ea he eee nes E. C. CRITTENDEN, A. WETMORE onianucany 1957 ot io. eee ee Joun E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER Committee on Hncowragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuerson, chairman): owamiranyelQbory isres a eeacels tomatoe AGAR: McPHERSON, W. T. Reap PROM aT Vel OSG epee ee occa ince eure © AG ————_., J. H. McMrien PRowiamuanyslO57 6. .c0 0 Sl eee ce, L. Epwin Yocum, Wrut1am J. YoupEN EP LOSENLALZUCROTI (OUNCULIOSAMAMAN S Hanh nt ae er aelat shina seni an Watson Davis Gan mntlecnofeAUuaclonss <1. so sate ns oe ce ae Josperu P. E. Morrison (chairman),
; Gaten B. Scuuspaver, Easpert H. WALKER Committee of Tellers...Grorear H. Coons (chairman), SamuEL Levy, Watpo R. Wepre.
CONTENTS
PALEONTOLOGY.—New genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower Carboniferous. Rorert Ho. CumMinGs.............- 9
PALEONTOLOGY.—Foraminifera from some ‘‘Pliocene” rocks of Egypt. RUSHDIPSAID. 26 oR asian ees 2 Le.
PALEONTOLOGY.—A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pitkin. Har- Min) IDA SBORIOMHN, 26 beep 6o boos F485 varbiwne tee.
EntomoLocy.—The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooleyz, S. bullata, and S. shermani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). VrERNE F. NewHouss, DAviIp > W. WALKER, and Maurice 2. JAMES......... >)
ENnroMoLogy.—Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A. ANDREWS. .
IcuTrHyoLogy.—F latfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S8.8. Alba- tross Expedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. Paut CHABANAUD.
MauacoLoey.—Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones. PS INVORRISON: .. <6 caca80 0 ee nee okey sl sa. 2
This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.
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Von. 45 FrBRUARY 1955 No. 2
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No. 2
BIOLOGY .—The unitary principle. A. A. Wiut1AmMson, Washington, D. C. (Com-
municated by Waldo L. Schmitt.)
The greatest thing a human soul ever does in this world is to see something, and tell what it saw in a plain way ...To see clearly is poetry, prophecy, and religion all in one——RuwsKIN.
The Greeks, of course, “had a word for it.’ Contrasting magnitude with number, they said that magnitude is limited in the large but unlimited in the small, whereas number is limited in the small but unlimited in the large. For—with respect to the whole numbers only—the smallest is the unit, one. By addition it can always be enlarged with- out limit. However large it may be, it can be made still larger, as one thousand, by the addition of one, becomes one thousand one, and so on without limit. But magnitude is at its utmost when the universe is taken as a unit, as the Greeks did. It can, however, be divided and subdivided without limit. Therefore Aristotle denied that the atom of Leucippus and Democritus could be the ultimate small its name implied: even it must be divisible as modern physics has found it to be. But the ultimate large of magnitude still is the universe, the “turning to one’”’ indicated by its name.
All of the world’s great religions, despite their differences, are in full agreement on one basic concept: the eternality and uni- _ versality of the divine. “Only its laws en- dure.” The theological religions of the | West see in their theoretic immortality of _ the human soul proof of its divinity, for the | immortal is divine. But the non-theological religions of the Far East teach how to lose the personal soul by union with the eternal soul of the universe from which (they say) come all incarnate souls. For everything _ that is manifest is transient; only the soul of the universe is immortal and therefore
33
divine. Thus, in both East and West, eternality—absolute independence of time— characterizes the divine and its abode, the universe.
Today, the fundamental concept of the eternality of the universe is being questioned and, for some, disproved. Theories assign- ing a vast but nonetheless limited age to the heretofore ageless are being advanced and developed. But not only is the quality of eternality being questioned, the spatial extent of the cosmos itself is being conceived of as having limits. Although these theories raise as vital problems as they purport to settle, they are meeting with the wide- spread credence in scientific circles. If, for example, the cosmos had a beginning in time, what was there before it? And if it is to have an end, what will be there afterward? If it is spatially limited, what hes beyond those spatial boundaries? To all such questions Echo (but only Echo) answers, What?
Modern cosmologies have one thing in common: all are mathematical. But mathe- matics is a branch of logic, and logic is concerned with proof, which is not neces- sarily synonymous with truth. It can confidently be said that when the proof of an axiological proposition is mathematical only, it is no proof of the truth-value, the factuality, of the proposition’s primary postulates, nor of the mathematically arrived at conclusions. The logical implica- tions of a proposition can be worked out in complete disregard of whether or not its primary postulates are factual: that is not the concern of mathematics. Something more than logic, even mathematical logic, is essential to the demonstration of truth. And truth, be it said, is simply nature, and
MAR 1 7 1055
34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON
conformity to it, as science itself recognizes. That is why even Einstein’s theories have been and are being subjected to empirical test. Do lght rays bend when passing through a gravitational field, as they theo- retically should? Observation proved that they do. Then—but only then—the theory, the logic of its mathematics, could be accepted as, to that extent, true. But if observation had shown that no bending occurs, all the mathematical logic in the world would not have sufficed to overcome that discrepancy, that non-conformity of theory with nature. The mathematics might be above reproach, but the proposition would have to be rejected at once as untrue. Nature does not always accord with human reason; observation may be faulty, or crucial experiments not so perfectly ex- clusive of alternates as supposed. Witness the history of the phlogiston theory, con- firmed by thousands of experiments and everywhere accepted until Lavoisier dem- onstrated its falsity and founded modern chemistry.
The extent to which mathematical cos- mologists now go is illustrated by Dr. George Gamow’s assertion that space is not only lmited but even changes shape with time, assuming convex, negative, and concave curvatures in a regular order.! The common sense questions of what, above suggested, are simply ignored. There is also the expanding universe theory, now widely accepted despite its reliance on the logical fallacy of affirming the consequent in a hypothetical syllogism (1.e., a non-sequitur which only may be true, not being at all necessarily so). Hubble, the discoverer of the ‘‘Doppler effect”? taken as indicative of dispersion, recognized that other factors might operate to produce it, but not all cosmologists are so conservatively cautious.
The foregoing should not have a contempt for mathematics read into it. It is merely to assert that mathematics, while a powerful, an almost indispensable tool, is nevertheless only a tool and so, by itself, not enough. Its logically arrived at conclusions must, whenever possible, be checked against empirical observation or controlled experi-
1 Sei. Amer. 190(3) : 55. Mar. 1954.
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 2 ment. Should that not be possible, then the logic of the theory must suffice as the best we can do.
. The first and second laws of thermody- hamics as formulated by Clausius are examples of this, for we do not know—we cannot know—from experience that the total energy of the cosmos actually is con- stant, or that the entropy of the universe actually tends to a maximum. But the extrapolation of a future state from a present state is impossible without a governing constant, which makes the aforesaid laws logical necessities. Until proved factually erroneous, they will stand because of their scientific usefulness, a major consideration.
If. however, the cosmos is actually sub- ject to the second law of thermodynamics; and if it is therefore running down like a clock which cannot be wound up, then it is logically false to associate eternality and divinity, and what all of the world’s great religions are agreed upon despite conflicting differences must be abandoned. For it is hardly conceivable that divinity can survive the loss of its most distinctive characteristic: infinity in space and time.
Enters now a concept of which no scientific notice is taken but which nevertheless merits grave consideration because of its pertinence and apparent validity as a universal law. This is the artistic canon of Number, which first came to the present author’s attention in a book on architecture as one of three great canons in the grammar of design, the two others being the canons of Punctuation and Inflection.?
Number, says Edwards, is of three categories: Unity, Duality, and Plurality. Of these three, the first and third are artistt cally correct and acceptable, but the second (Duality) is artistically abhorrent and not permissible. It never (he says) occurs un- resolved in nature.
Edwards defines duality as the juxta- position of two equals. It causes the two to compete for supremacy, each over the other, with almost literally painful effect upon the eye of the beholder, whose mind demands that the duality be resolved, for duality is of
> Epwarps, A. Trystan. The things which are seen: A revaluation of the visual arts. London, 1921.
Feprvuary 1955 WILLIAMSON: the very essence of discord, just as a second is in music.
It is the canon of Number, Edwards explains, which causes architects always to to support a Greek pediment with an even —never an odd—number of pillars. For an odd number would, for the sake of balance, bring a central pillar directly beneath the apex of the pediment and indicate a median line bisecting the whole into two laterally inverted but equal parts, producing true duality. The artistic effect would be ex- eruciating, especially if (as in some church- building fronts) there were a median-line- continuing steeple surmounting the whole.
Although two’s occur abundantly in nature, there is always a duality-resolving inflection if there is juxtaposition of the units. Each unit then becomes half of a pair, requiring the other to make a unitary whole, as with our hands, our feet, our eyes. Ed- wards gives many other examples. The skyline of a land- or seascape should never be exactly half way between the top and bottom of the picture, nor should the ribbon on a man’s straw sailor hat be just half as wide as the height of the crown. If a rectangular room is twice as long as it is wide, people assembling in it in considerable number will instinctively form two groups, one in each half, as if an invisible wall separated them. That invisible wall is the artistic canon of Number, which all sense
_ though they never so much as heard of it.
There seems no limit to the range of power of this canon of design. In the present author’s opinion, it forced a triune God
upon Christianity. For when, in A.D. 325, the Council of Nicea, by majority vote, made the Son coequal with the Father, it
unwittingly violated that canon by bringing two equals inte juxtaposition. Immediately the question arose: Which of the two is really God? So great a furore of debate ensued that it soon became evident that something had to be done to stop it. Ac- cordingly, in A.D. 381, the Council of Constantinople was convened. If the re- ligion was to remain Christian, no retreat to Unity (the One God of rejected Arianism)
was possible. Only one way, therefore, lay open, and that was to resolve the duality by changing it to plurality. This was accom-
UNITARY PRINCIPLE
35
plished by the introduction of the Holy Spirit. The plurality of the Trinity resulted, and Plurality is itself a kind of Unity, the unity of a group, which made preservation of the unity of the God-head possible. But it is because the Holy Spirit is part of the Trinity for artistic and not for theological reasons that it is so difficult to explain and to understand on theological grounds. On the basis of the canon of Number, however, it is easily explamed and understood.
This example is introduced here solely for the purpose of illustrating the univer- sality and compelling power of the great canon of Number. Its rule can be seen to extend even to spiritual matters, to the immortal, the divine.
When Emerson, in his essay on Com- pensation, wrote: ‘‘An inevitable dualism bisects nature, so that each thing is a half, and suggests another thing to make it whole; as, spirit, matter; man, woman; odd, even; subjective, objective; in, out; upper, under; motion, rest; yea, nay,” he substituted in that sentence (and for the worse) the word, dualism, for the word, polarity, with which the paragraph begins. For what he referred to is not dualism in the sense of duality as defined by Edwards. As the term, polarity, implies, it is, rather, complementarity. For as Emerson says, “‘each thing is a half, and suggests another thing to make it whole.”
Dualism, in Emerson’s sense, is an ancient truth. It was central to the religious doctrine taught by Zoroaster (6th century, B. C.) and still held by the Guebers and Parsees. It recognized two creative Powers: Ormuzd or Ahuramazda, the god of light and creator of all that is good; and Ahriman or Angra- mainyus, the god of darkness and creator of evil. That every rose has its thorn is a by- word of long standing.
Something very much like dualism as complementarity has sound scientific stand- ing. Thus, it is recognized that if there are statistical laws, then there must also be non- statistical laws in over-all universal law. In the course of a discussion of probability in quantum mechanics, Filmer 8. C. Northrop says: ““...a general rule concerning the universality of statistical laws in nature can be stated. This rule is that if there are certain laws in science which are statistical
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
then there must also be laws in that science which are not statistical. Otherwise the concept of theoretical probability essential to the meaning of the statistical law in question cannot be defined.’’ Planck has written to the same effect. And essentially the same principle of complementarity underlies Aristotle’s concept of positive forms and forms by privation as reciprocals, the former having factual existence, the latter—implied by the former—only poten- tial existence. ‘“‘Cold,”’ says Emerson, ‘‘is the privation of heat.” But there are regions where cold becomes positive, and tempera- tures at which that disorder of energy which is heat, is stilled.
The concept of complementarity leads to an interesting assumption. It is that if cos- mic energy is constantly being dissipated, then there must be some way in which it is just as constantly being accumulated or regenerated. But if so, what becomes of the second law of thermodynamics? It would be reduced to, at best, a half-truth.
A corollary assumption is that this assumed restoration of energy to effective- ness must be through the operation of a process. And that would imply something more than the negative entropy (or ‘‘negen- tropy’’) whose mathematical formula is given by Erwin Schrédinger in section 60 of his little book What zs life?
This brings us to a consequential ques- tion: Is there anywhere in nature an ob- servable process appearing to operate in the direction of the accumulation and restora- tion of energy?
To this question an affirmative answer can—it is believed—be given with con- siderable assurance. This process was out- lined in a paper by the present author published in this JourNAL for October 1953 (vol. 43, no. 10), under the title “Speculation on the Cosmic Function of Life.” It was further developed in a second paper in the same JouRNAL for October 1954 (vol. 44, no. 10), entitled ‘Integration and Indi- viduation as Elements of Evolution.” Both dealt with what was called the Pyra- mid of Life Concept.*
3 NortHrop, The logic of the sciences and the humanities. New York, 1947. Fifth (1952) printing,
p. 216.' 4 There are suggestions of a growing tendency
VOL. 45, NO. 2
The purpose of those two papers was to indicate that life—by no means limited to this planet—actually does accumulate, transmute, concentrate, and refine energy, and does it systematically through bio- logical evolution. By its pyramid-building process, mechanical, chemical, thermo- dynamic, and electromagnetic energy are— in the level of national social organisms— brought to such a state of refinement that electromagnetic energy overwhelmingly pre- dominates, forming that body of thought- produced, ideological ‘‘margins of vitality” which are the glory of civilization. Theoret- ically, national social organisms carry the process over into the pyramid’s psychozoic realm of reality. On the basis of age-long established precedent in its physical organis- mal realm (which is composed of three successively superimposed levels), two addi- tional levels in the psychozoic realm are to be expected. They can, indeed, be seen in process of slow formation now, in current history.
Here we may pause to note a fundamental difference between emergence as defined by William Morton Wheeler (this JouRNAL 43: 10) as it operates in the inanimate world and in the animate. In the former, emergents result from the specific interaction of unlikes, as atomic physics has found and as every chemical compound formula pro- claims (e.g., H2SO.). But in animate nature, emergents result from the specific interaction or organization of likes only. (All the cells of every multicellular physical organism are direct descendants of the original single fertilized ovum.) In this fundamental differ- ence lies the root cause of that minority group antipathy (often miscalled prejudice, bigotry, or whatnot) from which all nations (not America alone) unhappily suffer. It is old as the hills. Moses, the great Lawgiver of the Hebrews, knew and feared it. Con- trast the commandment Thou Shalt Not Kill, with the deeds recounted in Deuteron- omy 2, and find their reason in Numbers 33, verse 55: “But if ye will not drive out the
to give thought to life as a cosmic phenomenon, as (negative) in Harold Blum’s T7me’s arrow and evolution, and (positive) George Wald’s article, “The Origin of Life,’’ in Scientific American for August 1954.
Fepruary 1955
inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell.” For those who remained would constitute a minority group, which spells trouble always. And it is significant that minority group antipathy is not basically a matter of superiority and inferiority. Always it is the conflict of difference, of unlikes in standard of living, or religion, or manners and cus- toms, or race, or whatnot. It arises when, and only when, there is (1) a marked differ- ence, and (2) numerical representation of that difference large enough to be con- spicuous. One swallow does not make a summer, nor does difference-representation by only a few arouse antipathy. Its root
- eause is violation of the like-with-like rule
- shown
reconciliation of
fundamental throughout animate nature and operative at the human societal level in family, clan, phratry, tribe, and nation, the antithesis of the rule fundamental to inani- mate nature. It is an antithesis having pro- found implications bearing on the refining, regenerative process working for the per- petuation of the cosmic unitary principle.
In his two masterly works, The meeting of Fast and West and The taming of the nations, Dr. Filmer 8. C. Northrop, Sterling Profes- sor of Law and Philosophy at Yale, has that the greatest humanitarian problem facing mankind today is the the indigenous Asian (Far Eastern), nontheological religions (Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and the purer Hinduism) with the theological religions prevalent in the Near East and the West (Judaism, Christianity, and Moham-
-medanism). While the difficulties standing in the way of such a consummation are
appalling, there is an element of hope in the
fact which Northrop so clearly shows: that
both categories of religion seek, by different ways, to show man how to relate himself to
_ the timeless and the therefore divine. The - difference is that the nontheological religions
concentrate on what Northrop aptly calls the aesthetic component of things and our knowledge of them—that apprehension of
nature which is conveyed directly by the senses; whereas the theological religions
WILLIAMSON: UNITARY PRINCIPLE
37
concentrate mainly on the theoretic com- ponent thereof, which cannot be known by direct perception. The two categories are opposed, therefore, in the doctrinal develop- ment by each of but one of the two compo- nents of the same thing: nature. Yet those two components are complementary aspects of the whole, and he who sees but one sees not the whole. To neglect the one is to exaggerate the other, with unhappy effect.°
While Northrop has presented the problem with beautiful clarity and logic, backed by an astounding fund of thoroughly and fruit- fully analyzed information, he does not offer any unifying concept as a solvent. In this respect, but in it only, his work is deficient. (It does not, however, diminish the value of that work, nor lay it open to censure.) He brings the problem into clarifying focus, but does not tell us how to solve it—by what means.
He does, however, make it clear that a new set of basic assumptions is required, in the discovery and formulation of which both imagination and speculation can play legitimate, even necessary, roles.®
As has been intimated in the two JouRNAL papers hereinbefore mentioned, it is the firm belief of the present author that the Pyramid of Life Concept, if developed and elaborated as it can be, could furnish all that is needed to (1) place the social sciences and the humanities on a firmer foundation (for they have a schematic part in it, and in the complementarity of the integrative and individuative principles practical ethics and morals are rooted as derivatives); (2) to thus help raise those disciplines to a parity of authority with the physical sciences (for on its showing no mechanical universe could endure without life’s rejuvenating action); and (3) to show explicitly how that great humanitarian problem could be solved (by a general adoption of the Con- cept as the closing nexus of an improved, more adequate basic understanding). That belhef—that conviction—is the remoter, deeper-lying justification for the presenta- tion of these papers. They attempt to tell
> Tt is interesting and encouraging that Pro- fessor Northrop’s major works have required re- peated reprinting to meet the demand for them.
5 Northrop. Op. cit. supra. Pp. 321, 124, 347.
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
what has been seen, and tell it ‘in a plain way.”
The Pyramid of Life Concept challenges the truth of all those mathematical cos- mologies which, by limiting space and time, would make irrational man’s age-old asso- ciation of eternality and infinity with the divine. On the basis of that Concept, life does have meaning and cannot logically be neglected; eternality and infinity are ra- tional conceptual attributes of the divine; and assurance of validity comes whence it should: the broad field of Biology. For it is forees amassed, made inherent in, and systematically restored to power by life through the pyramid-building process that give movement to—that animate—the uni- verse as an indeterminate continuum and ensure its perpetuity. The cyclic character of the evolution of its distinguishable, determinate parts, together with the ap- parently direct relationship of those three great mysteries, magnetism, electricity, and mind, lends support to such a conclusion.
The present author dares hope that if and when the scientific, philosophical, and even religious usefulness of the Pyramid of Life Concept is seen, the way may be opened to its general acceptance. For it offers a new
VOL. 45, NO. 2
concept of history, superior in every way to the Hegelian concept out of which grew two world wars and on which Karl Marx drew heavily for the dialectic materialism theory underlying his communistic doctrines. Kmphasizing as it does the cooperative, organizing principle, especially in interna- tional affairs; stressing the irreversible evolutionary priority of importance of individual man rather than the State, be- cause of his sustenance-supplier status in relation thereto; finding in free intellectual inquiry the necessary basis for the ‘‘max- imization of human potentialities’ for the enrichment of that mental sustenance by which peoples and their nations live through their social institutions; and requiring of evolution only that it continue to operate just as it has for untold ages—it can fortify the democratic doctrine with a theoretic, philosophical justification such as it never had before and of which it stands in dire need today.
It is a Justification which can be published to the world with no fear whatever of evil consequences to follow, but, on the con- trary, with the utmost confidence in its beneficial effects.
MATHEMATICS.—-A pplication of two methods of numerical analysis to the com- putation of the reflected radiation of a point source. Peter Henricr, American University, Washington, D. C. (Communicated by John Todd.)
Let a monochromatic source of light of intensity J be fixed at the point (0, 0, h) of a (a, y, z)-space and let the horizontal plane z = 0 reflect independently from the angle of view a constant fraction » of the incident radiation. Let a small horizontal plane p be located at the point (a, y, z). Then the illumination per unit area of p due to reflection at the planez = 0 is ul (h, r, 2), where r = (@ + y’)!? and
| p dy Jo (h? + 7? + p? — 2rp cos ¢)*/?(p? + 27)? 1 This paper was prepared under a National Bureau of Standards contract with American University. 2 See [6], p. 1 + 3.
Introducing the dimensionless quantities
r jaligg h’ may
we can express this function in terms of one of two variables by putting
B(h, r, 2) = — WE 2) h and
WE, 1) = 2 dt (1)
C t dp 0 1+2+ 2 — 2teos¢)??2(2 + 7)" | In order to get some information about the | quantitative behavior of W(é, 7), this func-_ |
Frespruary 1955 HENRICI:
tion was tabulated for the two sets of values
See l|
.05(.05) 1.6
n = .05(.05)1.6 and
2 = SER
7 = .25(.25)8.0 In this paper we describe some of the pre- liminary analy tical work necessary for this computation. In §1 we reduce the integral
(1) to a finite simple integral involving the hypergeometric function. The computation of this function, including an application of Aitken’s 6-method to speed up the con- vergence of its power series, is discussed in $2. In §3 we give a rigorous discussion of the error committed by evaluating the simple integral numerically. This part of our work is based on a method proposed recently by P. Davis and P. Rabinowitz [8, 4]. A major part of the subsequent analysis can be extended to the case where the orientation of the plane element p is arbi- trary. We do not, however, discuss these generalisations in the present paper. | 1. TRANSFORMATION OF THE INTEGRAL (1). 1.1 Reduction to a simple integral. Our first aim is to reduce the double inte- gral (1) to a simple integral by carrying out the integration with respect to g. This can be done with the aid of hypergeometric func- tions. Although these functions are not ele- | mentary, they can be computed numerically to any desired accuracy, as will be shown in §2. By an elementary trigonometric identity we have
Piet — 22 cos ¢
=1+ (t+ &) — 4té (co ae
We expand the integrand in terms of
_ powers of
4té
tes (cor a where X = Too Gabe
and observe that |.
* The numerical results have been computed * on SEAC and are on file at the Computation Lab- - oratory.
REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 39
of ¢ and &. Integrating term by term, we ob- tain® , 270
| (1+ f+ — 2 cos ¢) *” dy
Dit 4 @ +6 Bare?
© By 7 I (3/2), X" ' cos” dd 0
n=0 nN !
Qr[l + (¢ + €)) PRG, 351; X), (2)
where
(3)
F(a, b; @3 ZB) = Ss (a)n (bd), as
A=0 (One
is the hypergeometric function. Hence
W(E, n) = 2n i (7 +t)”
-( + (t+ €)) PRG, 351; X)tdt (4)
This integral can be simplified further by using the transformation theory of the
hypergeometric functions. Applying the formula’ 2 —b ING, (03 Pos 2) = (1 — 5) bb+1- ao ge oe)
to the hypergeometric function in (4) and introducing the new variable°
= (le ey,
(4) becomes
| ate tat fee
X HG, 251; Zz dz, (5)
where now
Ae # Z=Z = - : 6 OO} ete oe
08 = bh Op =a(a+1)--- (a +n —1),
nm =
5 Bidelyi [5], eq. 2.11(28).
‘ This will not be confounded with the geo- metrical coordinate z used in the introduction.
40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
In order to avoid the numerically undesirable improper integration, we put, denoting the integrand in (5) by f(z),
be j@) ee = i jie + = (4) ab
Since in view of (6)
Z(z) = z(4),
the hypergeometric function in (5) has the same value for z and 1/z, and we can there- fore write
| gle)lgale) + gile)P(Z) dz, (7)
where we have put for brevity
q(z) = 21+ 2)" (8a) g(z)=[n ++ 8)e]° (8b) gs(z) = [ne +1 + &] 2" (8¢) jaa) = 1G ep 118 A). (9)
1.2 Special cases. 1.21 & = 0. By direct integration e.g. of (4) one finds
1 f 9 37? A OO NCU et Te ym a Qsyy\7 V1 —
-+ anhV/1 — 7, <q <i
n= 1 te Se {on + ieee ET (@? — 1)2\" Vip = 1
-+an lV 7? — i, L<p<Kp
It is easily seen that in spite of the apparent singularity V(O, 7) is a regular function of n at 7 = 1, the Taylor expansion being
WO, ») = 6 & ee = 1
1.22 » = 0. For n = O, W(E, n) is not de- fined. Writing in (4)
VoL. 45, No. 2
Lace
and applying to each integral the second mean value theorem, it can however be shown that
Me) = Clap ky
2. COMPUTATION OF THE HYPERGEOMETRIC FUNCTION.
2.1 Estimation of the error due to trunca- tion of the hypergeometric series.
Since for all values of z and all finite values of &£ 0 S Z(z) < 1, the hypergeo- metric series in (7) can be computed to any degree of accuracy from its power series. Putting
PG,#1;2) = Line, 0) we have 1 ote We Ye = (1 = re Yn-1) Ge = il, Bees) and hence
: 1 Rea U (1 a ms <7
On the other hand,
Denoting by
the n-th partial sum of (10) and putting s = lim s, , we have thus for the remainder
s — s, of the series the following estimates from above and from below (valid under the assumption 0 S Z < 1):
00 Gps pred < pie = s—s, 3 = Z i= (11)
Frepruary 1955
Ve
NW /S,
2.2 Aitken’s 6-method.
The sequence s, defined above has the property that, using the symbol A for the forward differences,
AS;-1 ASn_2
= 0) ar Ep. (13) where g is a constant and ¢, ~0asn— ~. The convergence of sequences of this type can be sped up by a process which is known as Aitken’s 6-method and which has been studied by various authors [1, 2, 7, 8]. This process consists in transforming the original sequence s, into a new sequence §, accord- ing to the rule
3, =f = (As,—1) (n = O, 3, a -) (14a) A*Sn—2 which may be written alternatively as Sn —= Spz—1 — pollen! ASn—2 (14b) APSn—2 A n—2 : Sno. ( ) . (14¢) A*Sn—2
The following facts are known:
(i) If g ¥ 1, the sequence §, is ultimately defined;
(i) If |q| < 1, the sequence §, has the same limit as the original sequence;
Gnjelia O< |"q|< 1, the ‘sequence’ s;, converges faster than s, in the sense that’
Sim S77 S — Sn
(15)
lim (=0. no | We also will have to make use of the follow- ing simple quantitative properties of the transformation:
(iv) If s, and §, 4, are defined, then
AE, (il = Oh E_) (l= Ona E2255)
AS, =
(16)
“See Lubkin [7], p. 233, where, however, the quite unnecessary assumption is made that e, de- pends analytically on the variable z = 1/n.
0 ASn-1 0
HENRICI: REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE
41 (v) From (16) it follows easily that if tm = Max | Ae,, | m=n a, = Mex | ealf and if 0) <q < 1 — 6, then |s — 3, | us |s—s,a|. (17)
i! : 5 GC S]@=)0 = ¢q— dea)
(vi) Further refinements may be possible by making use of special properties of the correction terms ¢,. For instance if, as in the present case, €, < 0, if the sequences €, and Ae, are monotonic from m = n on and if 0 < g < 1 + &,, we can replace (17) by
AE =n ——— Ch = OP
S IIA DH
(s = s,-1). (18)
2.3 Application to the summation of the hypergeometric series. In the present case
q = Z,
and thus
A Pee Ne
A n = = . "2 = 16 we ee
Equation (18) thus yields together with (11) the estimate
ype
< Fa ay seep ee sen ay
< (19) Tt follows that for a given number of terms the 6-method reduces the truncation error
by a factor
§ = & BI 1 = In/2 8s — JU):
which for Z = 0.5, n = 10 is approximately Vigoo. The gain in accuracy can thus be considerable. In practice, however, not the number of terms, but the accuracy is given, and the question arises how many terms of the series can be saved when a given ac- curacy has to be obtained. We shall next discuss several aspects of this question.
S — Sn
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
2.31 Asymptotic savings in the number of terms.
We first compute for a given n a lower bound for the number m of terms necessary to obtain with s,, the same accuracy as with §, . Putting m = n + k, we have for k the condition
SG > Sat SS = fa, or, using (12) and (19),
2v/2 Gerais xr 1-Z
open 8n3(1 — Z)?’
which yields
log 62 + 2log(1 — Z) + 3 logn
is 7 (20) ar —log Z
This is for fixed Z and n large ~ C log n,
where the constant C = —3/log Z can be-
come arbitrarily large if Z is close to 1.
2.32 Savings for a given accuracy.
Upper bounds 7 (Z, ¢) for the number of terms n necessary to attain with §, a given accuracy € can be computed from (19) by trial and error methods. In the following table we give these values 7 for several typical values of Z and for an accuracy of 10-*. They are contrasted with the lower bounds m, computed from (12), for the
number of terms necessary when _ the speed-up is not used.
Z nN m
l 5 df
5 15 27
9 92 196
.99 953 2279
2.33 Ratio of practical convergence.
The situation that the number of terms of an infinite series necessary for a given ac- curacy is either not known a priori or can only be determined by the solution of a transcendental equation arises frequently in practice. In such cases one usually proceeds with the summation until one or several terms of the series become smaller than a preassigned quantity, and the last partial sum is then taken to be the sum of the series. This ‘‘practical convergence” of the series has obviously nothing to do with mathematical convergence, unless some re-
VOL. 45, No. 2
lationship between the first neglected term and the remainder of the series is established. To this end we define as ratio of practical convergence (r.p.c.) for any series DAs, the quantity
3 = &
he T°
(21)
For series of type (13) we find under the assumptions of (vi) §2.2,
and it follows from (16) and (18) that under the same assumptions
(22)
ies S 9, |
where p, is the r.p.c. of the transformed series. The r.p.c. is thus not affected ad- versely by the 6-method. For our present problem it results that a uniform accuracy ¢ in the hypergeometric function is obtained if the summation is extended until
AS, = 61 — 2):
2.34 Savings in computation time.
In general, the time needed for the com- putation of s, will be negligible in compari- son with the time needed for the computa- tion of the original sequence s, . In a case like the present one, however, where the computation of s, itself is very simple, the question can be raised if it pays to apply the 6-method. In order to make it pay, it was decided here to compute §, not for every n but only for a set of equidistant values = kN, N > ik — 2 eee se if N is large enough® the additional time used for the computation of s, becomes negligible in comparison with the time con- sumed for the computation of s,, and the savings in computation time are of the same order as the savings in the number of terms.’ If the assumptions of (vi), §2.2 are satisfied, then AS, > 0, AS, — O monotonically, and we obtain for the r.p.c. of the sequence s, = Sy the estimate
8’ N = 8 was found convenient in the present case.
8 An alternate procedure would be to apply the 6?-method to the sequence t; = sxy. For this and
various other practical aspects of the 6?-method see [9].
FEBRUARY 1955 HENRICT: = Si Sev S — Sauyy fs Ss == = a 1 S&iDN — SkN SG+DN — Skv Ze SaqpN lik ges é =. =e +l= = P(k+t)N ap ll. N AS(41)N N
For the present case it results that a uniform accuracy © is guaranteed if the summation is carried out until
Ne(1 — Z)
ol N= Ne
3. ESTIMATION OF THE QUADRATURE ERROR.
3.1 Description of the method.
On the basis of the discussions of the last section the integrand in {7) may be con- sidered as known for numerical purposes. It remains to estimate the error induced by carrying out the simple integration (7) numerically. Since the integrand is an analytic function of z on the path of inte- gration, this can be done by a method which has been devised recently by P. Davis and P. Rabinowitz and which can be summarized as follows:
Suppose the function f(z) (2 = x + ty) is regular analytic in a domain © containing the segment [—1, 1] of the real axis, and denote by &, the ellipse with foci at +1 and semiaxes a and b = ‘a — 1)"? such that (a + b) = p. If now the integral
f(z) dz
is evaluated numerically by a given integra- tion rule R (e.g. by the trapezoidal rule, by Weddle’s rule, or by a Gaussian n-point rule), then the quadrature error is bounded by the quantity
Min || f |lg, ozo), (PlGpeD}
(24) where
ik. = ff \v@ Pardy ees)
and or(p) is a numerical coefficient depend- ing only on the integration rule and on p, but not on the particular function f. The values of « have been tabulated for various
1 Tt follows that Di. < Ptin) if Pern z= N/(N — 1).
REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 43
values of p and various integration rules in [4].
If this method is applied in practice, the quantity || f||/g,, which is hard to obtain exactly, will usually have to be replaced by a suitable upper bound, such as
VrabMeg,, (26)
where Mg, is an upper bound of | f(z) | in & - Moreover, instead of taking the mini- mum of (24) with respect to the continuous variable p, one will in general have to be satisfied with the minimum for a few dis- tinct values of p. It will be seen that in complicated cases such as the present one still further simplifications have to be made in order to get a working estimate.
3.2 The singularities of the integrand.
In order to determine the ellipses €, at our disposal, we first have to locate the singu- larities of the integrand in (7). Singularities arise
(a) from gi(z) at the points
21,2 = +1;
(b) from g2(z) at the points
(c) from g;(z) at the points VTA Sel
25,6 = 2 ; n 24,3
(d) from the hypergeometric function, which is singular at Z = 1, at the points z satisfying
Z Danleeee Ga) Bae 1.€., at kE +7
CUS = 7 —=———1 V1i+ 2
where all four combinations of signs are possible.
The ellipse &, , which encloses the path of integration, has in the present case its foci at 2 = 0 and z = 1. It is clear that if there are singularities near the path of integration, the choice of available ellipses &, is re-
44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON
stricted and, since the coefficients o are comparatively large for very slender el- lipses, the integration will be less accurate. In our problem this will happen when é is large, in particular when simultaneously 7 is small, because then the points 23,4 and two of the points 27, ... 1 are near to the points z = Oandz = 1 respectively.
3.3 The rectangle R,.
In view of the complexity of our integrand the task of obtainng Mg, for a given &, exactly is a difficult one. A particular com- plication arises from the fact that a working estimate for the function F defined by (9) is available only for | Z| < 1. In this case we find, using results of 2.1,
EG 2) see)
In order to overcome these two difficulties, we again forego some accuracy and consider in place of the ellipse 6 the smallest rectangle with sides parallel to the axes con- taining it. If a and b are the major and the minor semiaxes of €,, the corners of this rectangle R, are situated at 1g + a + ib. An upper bound for the modulus of the integrand in R, will clearly also be an upper bound in §,. The rectangle R,, then, must have the following two properties:
(a) None of the singularities z; must lie 1004 JfH 8
(DS) |Fi-< W aa Condition (a) is easy to check and yields the inequality
(27)
b < min Bb,, (28) i=1,2,3 where aE NS, Ip ES Vise Vila Pe ”"
iat) ee aa nN Aer
If this is satisfied, then we have for the functions g;(z) ( = 1, 2,3) the upper bounds
[nl S oh =(% tay +o)70—b)? (9)
el S & =[" —(+8)b)~ (29)
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 2
lgs| S 9s =[0g +4) +0? + = 70)
Condition (b) requires some closer in- vestigation. It is certainly satisfied for a sufficiently flat ellipse, since for z real, | Z| < 1. The condition will thus result in another upper bound for 6, namely,
~?, (295)
UD) 07 | PAB) |< Al}. pee OS @ S OPO. Since e Lea Y a peers eS AO ae ea
the problem of determining 6, is equivalent to that of finding for a given value of
now 1+2
the largest value y = y, with the property that the function
h(x, y) = | 46@ + Ie) f satisfied the inequality h(x, y) <p
for |z—%| 3 4,|y| SY
2
p=
. Then
= Up. (30)
It is easy to see that the function
hy) =
min h(x,y)
|z—7]Sa
is for a > 14 independent of a and is repre- sented analytically by
1+ wae T= 4, hoe ee (31) @= oy) = Te ion Wappen Sy = 1 This is evidently a continuous, strictly
monotonically decreasing function of y in [0, 1] with h(O) = 1, h(1) = O. The function y = Yp is the inverse of the function p = h(y) and hence given by
FEBRUARY 1955 HENRICI: REFLFCTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 45
In a rectangle Rp with b < by the hypergeo- metric function is thus by (27) bounded by
F = 1/(1 — p/h(b)), (33)
where h(b) is given by (31) with b = y. Finally, the norm || f ||g, of the integrand will be bounded by
IF || =V rab giGe+ 9s)F.
3.4 Numerical results.
The material is now at hand to compute upper bounds for the quadrature error for given values of — and 7 and for any rule for which the coefficients o are tabulated. The practical computation proceeds as fol- lows: First the upper bounds 6; for the minor semiaxis of the ellipse have to be ascertained according to (28) and (30). Then an ellipse has to be selected which meets the geo- metrical conditions and for which cr(p) is known. Experience shows that this ellipse should be chosen rather large, since with increasing p,cr(p) seems to decrease much more rapidly than the norm increases. For this ellipse the norm || f || has to be com- puted by (34). An upper bound for the error induced by the rule RF is then given by lf | oR(p).
The following is a table of error bounds for the function W(é, 7) (including the factor in front of the integral sign in (7)) for a few representative values of & and 7, if Gauss’s 16-point rule is applied.
(34)
E
n 22 1 5
1 4.37(—14) 1.40(—10) 2.48(—2)
5 6.24(—5) 6.46(—5) 4.78(—5) ; (a) = 104
Concerning this table, two remarks are in order.
1. If the above error bounds are computed for small values of 7, it turns out that only exceedingly flat ellipses &, are available, for which the values of o are either bad or are not tabulated at all. This is an indication
that in these cases the simple application of even a high-powered integration rule is in- adequate and that the interval has to be subdivided. If this is done, the above method is still explicitly applicable to each subinter- val, although, of course, the computations become more and more involved.
2. It is likely that in view of the numerous simplifications made the above error esti- mates are much too large. We base this remark on the two following empirical facts: (a) The results of the computations of (7) by one and by two Gaussian 16-point rules, carrying eight digits after the decimal point, agreed completely for & = 0(.05)1.6, 7 = .3(.05)1.6; (b) The value V(O, 1) = .4 (see $1.2) was obtained exactly. Nevertheless it will be observed that at least for moderate values of € and 7 the estimates are still very practical. To establish bounds of the same quality by conventional real-variable tech- niques is probably not easy.
Acknowledgment—The author wishes to acknowledge a number of stimulating discus- sions with J. Todd, P. Davis, and L. Joel. on the subject of this paper. Credit must also go to L. Joel for the successful computa- tion of (1) on SEAC along the lines indicated in §1 and §2. :
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1] ArrKen, A. C. On Bernoulli’s numerical solu- tion of algebraic equations. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 46: 289-305. 1926.
. Studies in practical mathematics IT. The evaluation of the latent roots and latent vectors of a matrix. Proc. Roy. Soe. Edinburgh 57: 269-304. 1936-37.
[3] Davis, P. Errors of numerical approximations for analytic functions. Journ. Rational Mech. Anal. 2: 303-313. 1953.
[4] Davis, P., and Rapinowrtz, P. On the estima- tion of quadrature errors for analytic func- tions. Math. Tables and Other Aids to Com- putation 8: 193-203. 1954.
[5] Erppiyr, A., pr au. Higher transcendental
functions, 1: New York, 1953.
[6] Fusseuyu, W. L. The reflected radiation from an
infinite Lambert plane. NRL Memorandum
report no. 122. 1953.
[7] Lusxin, 8. A method of summing infinite series.
Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 48: 228-254.
1952.
[8] STEFFENSEN, J. F. Remarks on iteration.
Skand. Aktuarietidskr. 16: 64-72. 1933.
[9] Experiments in the computation of conformal maps. Nat. Bur. Standards Applied Math. Ser. no. 42. Papers by J. Todd, 8S. E. Warshawski, G. Blanch, L. K. Jackson.
[2]
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 45, NO. 2
METEOROLOGY .— Dynamic linkages between westerly waves and weather.’ H.
WeExLeR, U.S. Weather Bureau.
Improved predictions of the large-scale westerly flow pattern for 24-48 hours on a routine basis will soon be available. A denser network of radiosonde stations, a better understanding of the dynamics of atmospheric flow, and availability of fast, large capacity computers have combined to make possible for the first time a useful mathematical prediction of the future positions and intensities of the major troughs, ridges, and cyclonic and _ anti- cyclonic eddies in the midlatitude flow pattern.
There remains the problem of predicting the weather pattern from the predicted flow patterns. Since an important part of what we mean by ‘‘weather” is cloudiness and precipitation, which are dependent on vertical velocities and water vapor, it is necessary to know the field of vertical motions. This has already been done in several cases treated dynamically, the vertical velocities being expressed as average horizontal values over 200-mile squares (which is the basic data mesh used) and over several hundred millibars in the vertical. The results of these calculations (e.g., for the November 5-6, 1953, storm on the east coast of the United States) show good agree- ment with precipitation amounts averaged over large areas, but not with individual amounts (7). In other words, the large-scale westerly flow pattern leads to large-scale fields of vertical velocities which, combined with the predicted moisture content, will delineate the associated large-scale pre- cipitation patterns.
However important this information is, the meteorologist must know more about the smaller-scale fine-grained — structure which he observes as ‘‘weather,’’ not only visually by cloud formations and distribution but also as radar displays of precipitating clouds. These show an amazing amount of “organization” in weather patterns, with
p)
1 Summary of remarks presented before Con- ference on High-Speed Computing Applications to Meteorology and Oceanography, sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the University of California at Los Angeles, May 13-15, 1954.
cellular, eddy, and line phenomena present whose sizes or widths are much smaller than the westerly wave lengths and in fact, smaller even than the average 200-mile mesh length used in present dynamic prediction methods (2). These smaller-scale phenomena which have principal effect on most human activities cannot be delineated by present larger-scale predictions of average vertical velocities and, therefore, average precipitation over 200-mile squares.
For example, precipitation cellular pat- terns of scale 10 by 10 miles (corresponding to thunderstorms) are often found super- imposed on the general large-scale warm- front precipitation area when the ascending tropical air is convectively unstable, and account for the heavier bursts of precipita- tion amounts hitting some spots and missing others a few miles away—which makes so difficult agreement of precipitation amounts predicted with those observed.
Line phenomena in weather have been long observed as the terms: line-squall or squall-line, front, instability line, and pres- sure jump line indicate. These lines, which may be hundreds of miles long, have widths measured in tens of miles. A very large percentage of violent weather, such as severe thunderstorms, windstorms, and the small but violent vortices known as torna- does, is located on these lines (3).
The general location in space and time of weather phenomena is controlled mainly by the large-scale westerly flow pattern in that “weather” usually occurs between the planetary wave trough and the ridge sonie hundreds of miles to the east. The extent and average intensity of the associated large- scale weather pattern will depend on the flow, thermal, and moisture properties of these westerly waves and are amenable to quantitative prediction as discussed earlier; but there is as yet no quantitative method of predicting the scale and ‘‘unsmoothed”’ intensity of the fine-grained structure of weather.
More must be learned of dynamic links connecting the large-scale flow pattern with
FEBRUARY 1955 WEXLER: WESTERLY the fine-grained weather pattern. The front was one of the first dynamic links discovered which connected atmospheric energy sources and surface weather; the recent concept of the pressure-jump line as an explanation of certain types of squall-lines provides another example. There is some evidence that the front owes its origin and maintenance to transverse air motions associated with the jet-stream aloft. The pressure-jump line has been shown to be a gravity wave on an internal surface; it may move faster than the surrounding winds and by its violent lifting of air causes the release of precipita- tion and latent energy, forming severe storms of small-scale. Such gravity waves may also play an important part in the initiation and propagation of cellular pre- cipitation patterns.
In the present large-scale dynamic meth- ods gravity waves are considered to be meteorologically unimportant noise, and are automatically eliminated by the geo- strophic assumption. In the case of the large-scale planetary waves with which dynamic methods are presently concerned, the elimination of gravity waves may be entirely justified, but not for the finer- grained weather.
Recent work has emphasized the earlier discovery by O. Reynolds (4) regarding the direction of flow of kinetic energy from eddies to zonal currents and vice versa. It appears that under certain conditions, usually fulfilled in middle latitudes, the large-scale eddies of the size of conventional “highs” and “lows” transfer their energy to the maintenance of zonal currents, the smaller eddies serving to diffuse some of the energy of the zonal currents. Thus the flow of energy from large zonal motions to small motions is important not only as regards the atmospheric energy cycle but in creating the fine-grained structure of weather. Some likely areas of investigation are suggested:
(a) Deepening or motion of an upper trough in the westerlies and consequent unbalanced ac- celeration of low-level currents which by their induced lateral motions produce line phenomena. This may be considered as an extension of the Rossby-Cahn effect and recent work by Tepper
WAVES AND WEATHER 47
(5) indicates that this model, treated as non- linear, causes ‘‘shocks”’ or pressure jumps propa- gating eastward if the basic unbalanced current is from the south. This may create squall-lines at the time of deepening or moving troughs in the westerly waves aloft. The linearized model of Rossby-Cahn did not yield such shocks or pres- sure-jump lines. Solution of this problem would also apply to Hawaiian precipitation, most of which apparently comes from warm clouds bounded by an inversion at 5,000 to 8,000 feet, where air temperatures are well above freezing. The appearance of a westerly wave trough at 30,000 feet aloft induces an upward motion in the inversion, thickening the clouds sufficiently to allow coagulation of cloud drops into larger drops which can precipitate to the ground. This process may also lead to formation of line phenomena, traveling away from the initial disturbance.
(b) Effect of mountainous and hilly terrain in producing moving discontinuities requires further investigation. The maximum frequency of tornadoes east of the Rocky Mountains may be a direct effect of the disturbance of air flowing over the mountains, or what seems more likely, the usual formation of troughs to the lee of the mountains tends to deepen the westerly wave trough as it passes east of the mountains. Never- theless, the tendency of line phenomena to appear on the east side of the mountains without a pronounced trough aloft indicates that at times there may be a direct mountain effect on atmos- pheric pulsations. The strong convective activity on a hot summer afternoon over the Rockies for example seems to generate travelling cloud lines which may cause nocturnal showers and thunder- storms farther east. Also the strong tendency for cold air drainage at night down the mountain and foot-hill slopes may cause Rossby-Cahn effects to the right of the unbalanced current. For example, the average vector difference at 1,000 meters at Oklahoma City in summer from 4 p. m. and 4 a. m. winds is 20 mph from the southwest, which might create line phenomena propagating to the southeast.
(c) Effect of sudden changes in air density caused, for example, by cooling by precipitation produces oscillations of a quasistationary front. A marked case of this sort occurred in May 1953 and created among others, the famous Waco, Tex., tornado (6).
48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(d) Spiralform bands in the hurricane present a fine example of curved line phenomena (2) similar in appearance to a spiral nebula. The first or ‘forerunner’ squall-lnes often appear 200-300 miles in advance of the hurricane. The occasional occurrence of tornadoes in hurricanes may also be associated with these bands, since most of the hurricane rain and squally winds are also concentrated there. The explanation of these marked bands is still lacking; they may be as- sociated with the “pumping”’ of the hurricane itself, generating waves which travel outward from the center and rotate or the entrainment and intensification of the cloud ‘streets’ often found over the tropical oceans.
VOL. 45, No. 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) SMacorinsky, J., and Couuins, G. O. The numerical prediction of precipitation. (To be published in Monthly Weather Rev.)
(2) Wexurr, H. Structure of hurricanes as deter- mined by radar. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 48: 821. 1947.
(3) Tepprr, M., etal. Pressure jump lines in mid- western United States, January—August 1951. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau, Research Paper no. 37. 1954.
(4) Reynoups, O. Dynamical theory of incom- pressible viscous fluids, etc. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, A186: 123. 1895.
(5) Tepper, M. On the generation of pressure jump lines by the impulsive addition of momentum, etc. (To be published in Journ. Meterology.)
(6) Wexuer, H. Readjustment of a front after cooling by precipitation Monthly Weather Rev. 81: 152. 1953.
PALEONTOLOGY .—A new Pleistocene bat (Corynorhinus) from Mexico. CHARLES O. Hanpuey, Jr., United States National Museum.
Vertebrate remains in large quantities were collected by the late Chester Stock in San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leén, Mexico. These have been reported in part by Cushing (1945), Findley (1958), Furlong (1943), Miller (1940, 1942, 1943), and Stock (1948). A portion of this material is temporarily at the University of Kansas, on loan from the California Institute of Technology. I am indebted to the authorities of the De- partment of Geological Sciences, California Institute of Technology, and to E. Raymond Hall of the University of Kansas for the opportunity to study a skull of the big- eared bat, Corynorhinus, from this collec- tion. It proves to differ significantly from other known forms and may be described as follows:
Corynorhinus tetralophodon n. sp.
Type.—California Institute of Technology (Vert. Pal.) no. 192/2989; well-preserved skull with worn teeth, lacking mandibles, auditory bullae, hamular processes, all incisors, right canine, and the minute premolar, P!, from both maxillae; collected by Chester Stock in Pleisto- cene deposits of San Josecito Cave, near the town of Aramberri, southern Nuevo Leén, Mexico, elevation 7,400 feet.
Diagnosis —Resembles Recent Corynorhinus in most cranial details. Rostrum broad and flattened; anterior nares, relative to greatest
length of skull, small and rounded in outlne (dorsal view); skull relatively narrow; braincase relatively shallow; zygoma with postorbital ex- pansion in posterior third of arch; supraorbital ridges lacking; temporal ridges prominent and converging posteriorly, so that they meet, but do not completely merge; intermaxillary notch relatively small; extension of palate posterior to M2? relatively short; median postpalatal process styliform, basial pits deep and well-defined. Tooth rows crowded; teeth relatively fragile (not robust); canine with small internal cingular cusp; P* wider than long, with anterointernal cingular cusp only slightly indicated; no trace of hypocone cusp on molars; M* with well-developed fourth commissure, almost equaling third commissure in length.
Measurements.—In millimeters, taken with dial calipers with aid of bmocular microscope. Great- est length (incisors excluded), 15.6; zygomatic breadth, 8.2; interorbital breadth, 3.4; breadth of brain case, 7.7; cranial depth, 5.3; maxillary tooth row (anterior edge of canine to posterior edge of M*), 5.0; postpalatal length (posterior margin of palate, excluding median process, to anteroventral lip of foramen magnum), 5.9; palatal breadth (at M3), 5.7.
Comparisons.—Closely resembles Recent spe- cies of Corynorhinus, but the retention of a well- developed fourth commissure on M* distinguishes tetralophodon from these as well as from all other species of plecotine bats. The fourth commissure
Fesruary 1955
of MS is barely indicated in Barbastella, Huderma, Tdionycteris, Recent Corynorhinus, and in the Pleistocene C. alleganiensis, but there is no trace of it in Eurasian Plecotus, which shows some re- duction even of the third commissure of M°.
Shallowness of the brain case is a feature ob- served in Plecotus, Euderma, Idionycteris, and possibly in C. alleganiensis (uncertain because of the likelihood that the only known almost com- plete skull has suffered dorsoventral compres- sion). This degree of shallowness (cranial depth equals 34 per cent of greatest length) is equaled in Recent Corynorhinus only by extreme variants.
Failure of the temporal ridges to merge com- pletely to form a sagittal crest is a character chared with C. alleganiensis, Idionycteris, and Euderma. However, in these forms the ridges remain farther apart. Occasional specimens of Recent Corynorhinus resemble C. tetralophodon in this respect.
Specimen examined.—One, the type.
HANDLEY: A NEW PLEISTOCENE BAT FROM MEXICO 49
LITERATURE CITED
Cusuine, J. E., Jr. Quaternary rodents and lago- morphs of San Josecito Cave, Nwevo Leon, Mexico. Journ. Mamm. 26(2): 182-185. 1945.
FinpueEy, J. 8. Pletstocene Soricidae from San Josecito Cave, Nwevo Leon, Mexico. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 5(36) : 633-639. 1953.
Furtone, E. L. The Pleistocene antelope, Stocko- ceros conklingi, from San Josecito Cave, Mexico. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 551: 1-8, 5 pls. 1943.
Mitier, L. A new Pleistocene turkey from Mexico. Condor 42: 154-156. 1940.
Two new bird genera from the Pleistocene
of Mexico. Univ. California Publ. Zool. 47(8):
43-46. 1942.
The Pleistocene birds of San Josecito Cavern, Mexico. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 47(5): 148-168. 1948.
Stock, C. The cave of San Josecito, Mexico. New discoveries of the vertebrate life of the ice age. Engineering Sci. Monthly, California Inst. Tech., Baleh Grad. School Geol. Sci. Contrib. no. 361, 5 pp. September 1943.
MYCOLOGY —A southern Basidiobolus forming many sporangia from globose and from elongated adhesive conidia. CHARLES DREcHSLER, Plant Industry Station,
Beltsville, Md.
During more than 30 years the Petri plate cultures that I prepared for the isolation of parasitic fungi from decaying roots and stems of various cultivated plants collected in the District of Columbia and in neighboring localities within Maryland and Virginia have now and then shown some limited development of smooth-walled zygo- spores which from their paired juxtaposed protuberances were recognizable as_ per- taining to a species of Basidiobolus. Since the zygospores, often badly contaminated with bacteria and miscellaneous molds, never germinated after their transfer to a fresh agar medium, and never were found accom- panied by conidia, my efforts to obtain the adventitious phycomycete in pure culture long remained unsuccessful. In recent years, however, unquestionably the same fungus has been isolated many times from numerous mycelia found developing in maize-meal agar plate cultures canopied with leaf mold taken from deciduous woods near Beltsville, Maryland, and Arlington, Vir- ginia. These cultures yielded, besides, an even larger number of separate isolations referable to a second species of Basidiobolus
differing from the first in the strongly musty odor it emitted (Drechsler, 1953), in its much earlier production of globose conidia, in its readier conversion of globose as well as of elongated adhesive conidia into sporangia, and in the strongly undulating outer con- tour of the frequently two-layered wall surrounding its mature zygospore. Because of similarity to B. ranarum Eidam (1886), especially in the character of its zygospore wall, the widely distributed second species— I have obtained it also from decaying plant detritus collected in New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, and Louisiana—awaits comparison with congeneric isolations from the excrement or stomach contents of frogs and other am- phibians.
The varied asexual reproduction displayed under ordinary cultural conditions by the species with zygospores of undulate profile takes place rather more abundantly in still another species of Baszdiobolus that came to light in several Petri plate cultures that had been canopied with small quantities of decaying plant detritus gathered in north- eastern Florida, on January 1, 1954. When
iad
growing on maize-meal agar this third species does not give off the musty odor emitted by many species of Streptomyces. As its zygospores are typically smooth it would seem Clearly distinct from B. ranarwm. For the same reason it would appear separate also from B. myxophilus R. E. Fries (1899) the zygospores of which were described as being provided with “‘episporio undulato”’; and this separateness would hold true whether the doubts expressed by Levisohn (1927), and later by Fries (1929) himself, concerning the independence of B. myz- ophilus were justified or not. Its smooth zygospores presumably distinguishes the Florida phycomycete lkewise from B. intestinalis (Léger and Hesse), for the statement by Léger (1927) that the ‘‘oeuf sphérique” of the fungus inhabiting the trout imtestine becomes surrounded by a wall composed of ‘‘écailles concentriques”’ must almost certainly imply the presence of numerous convex contour markings similar to the wavy peripheral markings shown in Eidam’s (1886, pl. 12, fig. 7-9, 12-14) and Thaxter’s (1888, pl. X XI, fig. 413) illustra- tions of the mature undulate zygospores of B. ranarum. Although Levisohn found the Basidiobolus developing from the excrement of lizards to agree with the single species infesting the digestive tracts of frogs, toads, salamanders, and blindworms, and _ there- fore held B. lacertae Eidam to be identical with B. ranarum, it yet seems expedient to note here that very short and consistently unseptate protuberances such as Hidam set forth as being characteristic of conjugating segments in B. lacertae are not usually observable in the Florida fungus. In view of the readiness with which its conidia are converted into sporangia this fungus may appropriately be described under an epithet compounded of two words pepioros, oropa meaning “‘divided” and ‘‘seed,”’ respectively.
Basidiobolus meristosporus, sp. nov. My- celium mediocriter conspicuum, saepe in aerem visibiliter crescens, incoloratum; hyphis sterilibus ramosis, plerumque 3-20 crassis, mox septatis, hic illic disjunctis, cellulis eorum plerumque 30- 230u longis, uno nucleo visibili praeditis. Primi- formibus fertilibus hyphis singulatim ex cellulis myceli vel ex conidiis vel ex zygosporis surgenti- bus, incoloratis, simplicibus, basi 4-9 latis, in
50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 45, No. 2
aerem vulgo 60—200u ad lucem protendentibus, sursum in tumorem jaculatorium 35-60u longum et 15-30u latum inflatis, apice unum primiforme conidium ferentibus, denique hoe violenter ab- jicientibus; primiformibus conidiis globosis sed basi ad instar mammiculae leviter prominulis, plerumque 20—45y in diametro, nune uno nucleo nune duobus nucleis praeditis, interdum in sporangium transeuntibus denique 5-90 sporas intus gignantibus. Hyphis formae gracilis fertili- bus ex primiformibus vel tenacibus conidiis nec umquam ex cellulis mycelii surgentibus, incolora- tis, rectis, saepius 75—200u longis, basi 1 .5-3 .5u latis, sursum leniter attenuatis, apice 1—2y latis, ibi unum conidium tenax ferentibus. Tenacibus conidiis omnino 20-70u longis, 6-20 latis, ex infera viventi cellula et supero glutinoso rostro constantibus; glutinoso rostro flavido, tubulato, 3-10.54 longo, sursum 1—2.7y lato, apice vulgo guttula materiae glutinosae flavae 3-10u crassa vestito; viventi cellula imeolorata, elongato- ellipsoidea, recta vel leviter curvata, pleurumque 17-55u longa, uno nucleo vel duobus nucleis in- structa, interdum in sporangium transeunte denique 1-50 sporas intus gignantibus. Sporis incoloratis, globosis vel elongato-ellipsoideis vel rotundo angulatis, plerumque 7—15y longis, 6— 12, latis, uno nucleo praeditis. Zygosporis ex con- jugio duabus cellularum contiguarum in hyphis mycelii etiam in conidiis ortis, globosis vel elongato-ellipsoideis, plerumque 23-35, longis, 20-32, latis, in maturitate uno nucleo instructis, muro levi saepe aliquid flavido 2-8 crasso cir- cumdatis.
Habitat in materiis plantarum putrescentibus prope Palatka, Florida.
Mycelium usually readily visible, growing noticeably into the air, colorless; assimilative hyphae branched, mostly 3 to 20u wide, early be- coming divided by cross-walls; hyphal segments mostly 30 to 230u long, in many instances soon becoming separated from their neighbors, in the living state showing a single nucleus. Primary conidiophores arising singly from hyphal seg- ments or from conidia or from germinating zygospores, colorless, unbranched, proximally 4 to 9 wide, commonly extending to 60 to 200z into the air and toward the main source of light, inflated distally into a propulsive swelling 35 to 60un long and 15 to 30u wide, bearing at the tip a single primary conidium and forcibly shoot- ing it off; primary conidia globose, but with a wide mammiform protrusion at the base, mostly 20 to 45u in diameter, colorless, containing 1 or
FEBRUARY 1955 DRECHSLER: 2 discernible nuclei, rather often functioning as sporangia in forming 5 to 90 spores internally. Conidiophores of slender type arising singly either from primary or from adhesive conidia but never originating from hyphal segments, color- less, straight, mostly 75 to 200z long, 1.5 to 3.5; wide at the base, tapering gradually upward, 1 to 2u wide near the tip on which a single adhesive eonidium is borne in axial alignment. Adhesive conidia mostly 20 to 70x in total length and 6 to 20u in greatest width, composed of a living cell and an apical adhesive beak; the adhesive beak yellowish, tubular, 3 to 10.5 long, 1 to 2.7u wide above its broad attachment, at the tip com- monly surrounded by a globose mass of golden yellow glutinous material 3 to 10u in diameter; living cell colorless, elongated-ellipsoidal, straight or slightly curved, mostly 17 to 55y long, con- taining 1 or 2 clearly visible nuclei, often func- tioning as sporangia in forming 1 to 50 spores internally. Spores colorless, globose or elongate- ellipsoidal or somewhat angular, mostly 7 to 15u long and 6 to 12u wide. Zygospores originating from union of 2 contiguous cells in mycelial hyphae or in conidia, mostly globose or elongate- ellipsoidal, often 23 to 35y long and 20 to 32u wide, in mature resting state apparently contain- ing a single nucleus and surrounded by a smooth, slightly yellowish wall 2 to 3u thick.
Occurring in decaying plant materials near Palatka, Florida.
In the readily visible character of its mycelium and in its tendency toward aerial development Basidiobolus meristospsrus differs markedly from the two congeneric forms ubiquitous on leaf mold near the District of Columbia, both of which are often virtually indiscernible on maize-meal agar, and are little given to production of aerial hyphae on this substratum despite their robust sub- merged growth. Yet under the microscope a young mycelium of B. meristosporus looks much like young mycelia of the two congeneric species with respect to branching habit, cellular dimen- sions, and protoplasmic texture. Where vegeta- tive growth takes place in an ample expanse of unoccupied agar substratum the terminal seg- ments (Fig. 1, A) at the advancing forefront are commonly 8 to 10 wide. Fluctuations between 9 and 13 are usual in the penultimate and ante- penultimate segments, and prevail rather gener- ally also among the older segments to the rear. However, the short proximal segments near the empty envelope of the conidium from which a sizable mycelium has originated often measure
SPORANGIA FROM CONIDIA 51
15 to 20u in width. In tube cultures 10 to 15 days old elongated ellipsoidal segments 50 to 125 long and 25 to 30u wide can sometimes be found in large numbers 4 or 5 millimeters below the sur- face, but as these massive cells are often wholly disconnected or have only meager contact with any neighbor